Pei Ju (裴矩), courtesy name Hongda, came from Wenxi in Hedong. He served the Sui under the emperors Wen and Yangdi.[1] Under Yangdi he managed the court’s trade and diplomacy with the western peoples at Zhangye.[1] In 607 he wrote the Xiyu tuji (西域圖記), the Illustrated Record of the Western Regions.[2] Its preface describes three roads from Dunhuang to the western sea. It names the Göktürks and the Tuyuhun as the obstacle on them.[1]

The same man shaped the Sui policy towards the Göktürks. In 610 he proposed to split the western Göktürks by raising Shegui against Heshana.[3] A few years later he planned the killing of Shishu Huxi, the trusted adviser of Shibi Khan.[1] He survived the fall of the Sui. He served Yuwen Huaji and Dou Jiande one after the other. Under the Tang he held a ministry.[4]

Family and early career

Pei Ju lost his father in infancy.[1] His grandfather Ta had been a minister under the Wei. His father Nazhi had been an attendant of the crown prince under the Qi.[1] Pei Ju grew up fond of study and of literary style. The Sui Shu credits him with a talent for stratagems.[1] His father’s elder brother Rangzhi told him that a man who wanted a career must take up the practical business of the realm. From then on Pei Ju gave his mind to public affairs.[1]

He served two princes of the Qi. When the Qi fell, no post came to him.[1] The later emperor Wen was then governor-general at Dingzhou. He called Pei Ju to his staff as a secretary. He held him in high regard.[1] After Wen took the throne, Pei Ju rose to the rank of jishi lang.[1]

In the war against the Chen he served as secretary in the headquarters of Prince Guang, the later emperor Yangdi.[1] When the Chen capital Danyang fell in 589, Guang had him and Gao Jiong collect the Chen maps and registers.[5] The Zizhi tongjian adds that the two sealed the treasuries. They took none of the wealth for themselves.[6]

In 590 he was sent to pacify Lingnan, where rebels had closed the roads of Wu and Yue.[5] The emperor hesitated to send him. Pei Ju asked to go at once.[1] At Nankang he raised several thousand men. He broke the rebels who besieged Dongheng prefecture and Guangzhou. He brought more than twenty prefectures to order. By delegated authority, he named their chiefs prefects and magistrates.[1] The emperor remarked that Wei Guang had led twenty thousand men and had not crossed the ridge early, while Pei Ju had reached Nankang with three thousand worn-out soldiers.[1] Pei Ju received the rank of kaifu, the title of duke of Wenxi county and two thousand pieces of goods. He became vice-minister of the Board of Revenue. Soon after, he became neishi shilang.[1]

Dealings with the Göktürks under the emperor Wen

The Göktürks were strong in those years.[1] The wife of Tulan Khan was Princess Dayi, a daughter of the Yuwen house. The Sui Shu says that for this reason trouble came often on the frontier.[1] Zhangsun Sheng exposed her affair with a hu of her following. Pei Ju then asked to go to Tulan and persuade him to put the Yuwen woman publicly to death.[1] The emperor agreed. She was killed.[1]

The chapter on the Göktürks tells the matter differently. There Yami, whom the Chinese call Qimin Khan, had sent envoys to ask for a bride. The emperor had Pei Ju tell the envoys that the marriage would be granted when Dayi was dead.[3] Yami slandered the princess to Tulan again. Tulan killed her in his tent.[3] The Zizhi tongjian enters the episode under 593 and gives both parts of the story. Pei Ju asks to persuade Tulan. Pei Ju also states the condition to Yami.[7] Some scholars put Yami’s secret embassy in 597. In that case Pei Ju offers him the princess Anyi in return for Dayi’s death.[8] The same scholars hold that Yami and Pei Ju then corresponded in secret while the Sui fought Tulan. As a result, the Chinese armies stood in the right place at every attack.[8] None of the Chinese accounts of that war names such letters.[9] The killing itself is told in Death of Princess Dayi.

When Tulan and Yami fell out, Tulan raided the frontier posts again and again. The emperor named Shi Wansui commander and Pei Ju his chief of staff.[1] They marched out by the Dingxiang road. In the words of the Sui Shu, they broke Tardush, whom the text calls Datou Khan, beyond the frontier.[1] Shi Wansui was later put to death. His merit was never recorded.[1] The Zizhi tongjian dates Shi Wansui’s campaign to 600. It sends him out by the Mayi road to the Dajin mountain. It does not name Pei Ju.[10] The campaign is told in Battle of Mount Dajin.

Yami had just come over to the Sui. The emperor sent Pei Ju to comfort him.[1] On his return Pei Ju became left secretary of the Department of State Affairs.[1]

The Western Regions and the Illustrated Record

Zhangye and the merchants

When Yangdi came to the throne, the peoples of the west came in numbers to Zhangye to trade with China. The emperor put Pei Ju in charge.[1] The Sui Shu’s chapter on the Western Regions gives the first step. Yangdi had sent the censor Wei Jie and Du Xingman, a clerk of the Sili, to the western lands. He then ordered Pei Ju to travel to and fro between Wuwei and Zhangye and draw the foreign states to court.[11] The chapter counts forty-four states with a ruler of their own. It also counts more than thirty that sent envoys in the Daye era, 605 to 618.[11]

Pei Ju knew that the emperor was set on distant conquests.[1] He induced the merchants who came to tell him of the customs of their countries. They told him of the mountains and rivers, which were hard to pass and which easy. He wrote the Xiyu tuji in three books. He presented it at court.[1] The Zizhi tongjian dates the presentation to the tenth month of 607.[12]

The preface

The Sui Shu keeps the preface of the Xiyu tuji and not the three books.[1] Pei Ju begins with the limits of earlier knowledge.[1] Yu had led the river no farther than Jishi. Qin had built its defences only as far as Lintao.[1] The western peoples lay beyond the reach of the rites. They rarely appeared in books.[1] The Han had counted thirty-six states, later fifty-five. It had kept a protector-general and commandants among them. However, the mountains and rivers of the states had no names in the old records. Nothing had been compiled on their clans, customs, dress or products.[1] North of Khotan and east of the Congling, the earlier histories counted more than thirty states. They had since destroyed one another. Only ten were left.[1]

Then he gives his method.[1] As the official who received the foreigners and oversaw the frontier markets, he searched the books and questioned the hu. Where he doubted a statement, he checked it against many informants.[1] He had the kings and the common people painted in the dress and bearing of their own countries. He made the book from these paintings: three books, forty-four states in all.[1] He made a separate map that went into the strategic points.[1] The whole reached nearly twenty thousand li in length and breadth.[1] His informants were rich merchants who had travelled everywhere.[1] He left out remote lands that he could not check. He also left out the mountain peoples without the name of a state and the small tribes.[1] The states he included each had more than a thousand households. The Han kingdoms, by contrast, had a few dozen households each.[1]

The three roads

Three roads led from Dunhuang to the western sea.[1] The northern road started at Yiwu and ran by the Pulei Sea. It passed through the Tiele tribes and the court of the Göktürk khan. It crossed the Beiliu river and reached the land of Fulin and the western sea.[1] The middle road went from Gaochang through Yanqi, Kucha and Shule. It crossed the Congling. It then passed through Bahan, Sutuishana, Kang, Cao (曹國), He, the Greater and Lesser An and Mu to Persia and the western sea.[1] The southern road went from Shanshan through Khotan, Zhujubo and Hepantuo. It crossed the Congling. It then passed through Humi, Tokharistan, Yida, Fanyan and Cao (漕國) to the Northern Brahmans and the western sea.[1] Yida is the country of the Hephthalites.[11] The states on the three roads were also joined by roads running from north to south.[1]

Pei Ju concluded that Yiwu, Gaochang and Shanshan were the gates of the Western Regions. All the roads met at Dunhuang, the throat.[1]

The argument

The preface is also a plea. With the might of the state and the courage of its soldiers, Pei Ju wrote, the west could be reached as easily as turning a palm.[1] Only the Göktürks and the Tuyuhun blocked the way. They divided the lands of the Qiang and the hu between them. As a result, the tribute of the western states could not come through.[1] Through the merchants, those states now secretly sent their pledges. They wished to be the emperor’s subjects.[1] If envoys were sent without moving a war chariot, the western peoples would follow. The Tuyuhun and the Göktürks could then be destroyed.[1] He closed with the words that to unite the Rong and the Xia lay in this. He added that without a record, nothing would show how far the emperor’s authority reached.[1]

Reward

The emperor was delighted. He gave Pei Ju five hundred pieces of goods.[1] Every day he had Pei Ju brought to the throne. He questioned him about the west.[1] Pei Ju spoke at length of the many treasures among the hu. He said that the Tuyuhun could easily be swallowed up.[1] From then on the emperor set his heart on opening the western roads. He left the management of all the foreign peoples to Pei Ju.[1] The Zizhi tongjian tells that the western merchants came and went in a stream afterwards. The commanderies on their way were worn out by escorting and receiving them. The waste was reckoned in ten-thousands of ten-thousands.[12]

Some scholars think that the Sui Shu’s entry on the Hephthalites draws on this report, apart from one sentence. If so, the river name and the Buddhist temples of the Hephthalite capital come from Pei Ju.[13] They also hold that the longer report of Wei Jie, the Xifan ji, was not yet before Pei Ju when he wrote.[14]

Drawing the western states to court

After the presentation Pei Ju was made a vice-minister. Before he had taken up the post, he became huangmen shilang.[1] The Zizhi tongjian has him receive this rank at the end of 607.[12] The emperor sent him again to Zhangye. More than ten states came.[1] They came to assist at the emperor’s sacrifice on Mount Heng. The Sui Shu puts the sacrifice in 607, and the Zizhi tongjian puts it in the eighth month of 608.[15]

The Tiele had meanwhile raided the frontier. The Sui general Feng Xiaoci, sent out from Dunhuang, fared badly against them.[11] When they asked for terms, the emperor sent Pei Ju to console them. Pei Ju urged them to earn their pardon by attacking the Tuyuhun.[11] They did so and beat the Tuyuhun badly.[11] The Zizhi tongjian enters the raid and Pei Ju’s consoling under 607 and the persuasion under 608.[16] The Tiele had risen against the western Göktürks a few years earlier, in the revolt of 605.[3]

In 608 the general Xue Shixiong walled Yiwu. Pei Ju went with him.[15] He told the western states that the emperor had built the town for the sake of the foreigners’ distant trade. They believed him. They made no claim to the place.[1] The emperor gave him four hundred thousand cash on his return.[1]

Before the emperor’s journey to the west in 609, Pei Ju went to Dunhuang.[1] He sent envoys to Qu Boya, the king of Gaochang, and to the tudun shad of Yiwu. He drew them to court with the promise of great profit.[15] Both met the emperor at Mount Yanzhi with the envoys of twenty-seven states.[1] The Sui Shu counts the gains. The Tuyuhun were crushed. Several thousand li of land were taken and garrisoned. The frightened states sent tribute one after another.[1] The emperor promoted Pei Ju to yinqing guanglu daifu.[1] The reception is told in Assembly at Mount Yanzhi.

That winter Pei Ju urged the emperor to hold a great festival at Luoyang for the foreign visitors.[1] Entertainers from all quarters performed in the street before the Duanmen. Officials and townspeople watched in their finest clothes.[1] The shops of the three markets were hung with curtains and laid with wine and food. The foreigners traded with the townspeople. Wherever they went, they were seated and feasted.[1] The foreigners marvelled. They called China a land of immortals.[1] The shows lasted a month.[1] The Zizhi tongjian dates the great show to the first month of 610. It does not name Pei Ju in it.[17] It is told in Sui Variety Shows for Yami Khan. The emperor said that Pei Ju understood his mind. Everything Pei Ju proposed was what the emperor had planned. Pei Ju reported it before the emperor had spoken.[15]

Policy towards the Göktürks

Heshana and Shegui

Pei Ju’s post at Dunhuang also brought him news of the Göktürks.[3] In 608 he learned that Heshana’s state was in turmoil. He learned that the khan, whom the Sui Shu calls Chuluo Khan, longed for his mother, the Lady Xiang. She lived at the Sui court.[18] He proposed an embassy. The emperor sent Cui Junsu with a letter.[18] Heshana knelt to the edict.[3] The embassy is told in Embassy of Cui Junsu.

Heshana still did not come to court. In 610 the emperor sent the censor Wei Jie to summon him to a meeting at the Dadouba valley. Heshana’s people would not let him go.[3] At that moment Shegui, a chief of Heshana’s realm, sent an envoy to ask for a bride.[3] Pei Ju saw the opening.[3] He told the emperor that Heshana stayed away because he trusted in his strength. The way to weaken him, he said, was to split his state.[3] Shegui was the son of Duliu and the grandson of Datou, of a line that had been khans in the west for generations. He had lost his place and was subject to Heshana.[3] If the envoy were received richly and Shegui were named Great Khan, the power of the Göktürks would be divided and both halves would follow the Sui.[3]

The emperor agreed. He had Pei Ju visit the envoy’s lodging morning and evening to hint at the plan.[3] Then he received the envoy. He gave him a peach-bamboo arrow with white feathers for Shegui, with the words: “This matter must be done quickly, swift as an arrow.”[3] Shegui attacked. Heshana fled east of Gaochang to the Shiluoman mountain.[3] The emperor sent Pei Ju to the town of Jinchang at the Jade Gate with the trusted attendants of Lady Xiang. Her messenger persuaded Heshana to come in.[3] The emperor rewarded Pei Ju with a sable coat and treasures of the west.[1] The biography adds that Pei Ju had reported the ruse of setting Shegui secretly against Chuluo. For the story, it refers to the chapter on the Göktürks.[1] The sequence is told in Fall of Heshana Khan.

The emperor kept Heshana’s followers apart. He settled more than ten thousand of the weaker ones at Huining under Heshana’s brother.[3] In 613, after the rising of Yang Xuangan had been put down, the emperor sent Pei Ju to settle the lands west of the Long mountains.[19] He went to Huining and looked after Heshana’s people. He sent Heshana’s brother Que Dadu Shad to raid the Tuyuhun. The emperor rewarded Pei Ju richly for it.[19]

Yami and Goguryeo

When the emperor visited Yami’s camp in 607, an envoy of Goguryeo who had come to Yami in secret was presented to him.[20] Pei Ju told the emperor that Goguryeo had once been Chinese land. Its envoy had seen a whole state submit with Yami, he said, and the king could be frightened into coming to court.[1] If the king refused, the emperor should lead the Göktürks against him.[1] The emperor agreed. When Gao Yuan, the king of Goguryeo, did not obey, the plan of the Liaodong campaigns began.[1] The visit is told in Yangdi’s Visit to Yami, and the other side in Goguryeo.

Pei Ju followed the army to Liaodong in two successive years. When the vice-minister of war Husi Zheng fled to Goguryeo, the emperor had Pei Ju take charge of military affairs as well.[1] For the Liaodong campaigns he was promoted to youguanglu daifu.[1]

Shibi Khan

In 614 Pei Ju followed the army to the Huaiyuan garrison. He was put in charge of the military affairs of the northern peoples.[19] He saw that the following of Shibi Khan was growing. He proposed to divide it.[1] A woman of the imperial clan was to marry Shibi’s younger brother, the Chiji Shad. Chiji was to be made Southern Khan.[1] Chiji did not dare to accept. Shibi heard of it and began to resent the Sui.[1] The title is explained in Western and Southern Khans.

Pei Ju then tried a second way.[1] He told the emperor that the Göktürks were simple by nature and easy to set against one another. The trouble came from the many hu among them, all of them cunning.[1] Some scholars regard these hu as the Sogdian merchants who lived in large numbers on the Mongolian plateau.[21] He named Shishu Huxi, the most scheming of them and the one Shibi favoured. He asked leave to lure him out and kill him.[1] The emperor agreed. Pei Ju had a man tell Shishu Huxi that the emperor had brought out precious goods at Mayi and wished to trade with the frontier peoples. The man added that whoever came first would get the best.[1] Shishu Huxi was greedy and trusting. He drove his herds there at speed without telling Shibi.[1] The surname Shi points to Kish, south-west of Samarkand.[21] Some scholars identify the tribe he took with him with a Sogdian colony, and its leaving without Shibi’s leave as a sign that such colonies acted on their own under the khan.[22] Pei Ju had soldiers waiting below Mayi, which one modern account identifies with Shuoxian in Shanxi.[23] They lured Shishu Huxi in and killed him.[1][23] An edict told Shibi that the Sui had killed a man who had rebelled against his khan.[1] Shibi knew the truth. He stopped coming to court.[1] The killing is told in Murder of Shishu Huxi.

In 615 Shibi besieged the emperor at Yanmen.[1] One modern account notes that the Sui Shu gives no reason for the attack, and takes the killing of Shishu Huxi for its cause.[23] An edict ordered Pei Ju and Yu Shiji to sleep each night in the court hall to be at hand when the emperor called for them.[1] The Zizhi tongjian tells Pei Ju’s plots against Shibi as the background of the siege. The siege began in the eighth month.[24] The siege is told in Siege of Yanmen. After the siege was lifted, Shegui sent his nephew with the western hu to bring tribute. The emperor had Pei Ju receive them at a banquet.[1]

Each of these plans worked through a man from the khan’s own realm: Shegui against Heshana, Chiji and Shishu Huxi against Shibi.

The end of the Sui and the Tang years

In the last years of the Sui, the court was at Jiangdu, and rebels were rising everywhere. The emperor was angry when Pei Ju spoke of the disorder.[1] In 617 the xiaoguo guards who had followed the emperor to Jiangdu began to desert. The emperor asked Pei Ju what to do.[25] Pei Ju said that men without wives would not stay. He proposed to let the soldiers marry at Jiangdu.[26] The emperor was delighted. Pei Ju gathered the widows and unmarried girls of the district in the palace offices. He let officers and men choose.[1] When the army that had risen at Taiyuan entered the pass, the emperor sent Yu Shiji to ask Pei Ju for his counsel. Pei Ju advised an early return to the capital.[1]

In 618 Yuwen Huaji killed the emperor.[27] Rebels met Pei Ju at the gate of his ward. They took his horse by the bridle and led him to Meng Jing. They all said, however, that the matter did not concern “Pei of the Yellow Gate”.[1] The Zizhi tongjian gives the reason. Pei Ju had known that a rising would come. He had treated even the servants well.[27] When Huaji arrived, Pei Ju bowed to him. Huaji reassured him.[1] He helped to draw up the court protocol. He went with Huaji to Hebei.[1] When Huaji took the imperial title, he made Pei Ju right vice-director of the Department of State Affairs. He also made him duke of Cai.[28]

After Huaji’s defeat in 619, Dou Jiande took Pei Ju prisoner. He treated him generously.[29] Dou had risen from the bandit bands, and his court had no ceremonial. Pei Ju drew up the court rituals.[1] The Zizhi tongjian adds the laws.[30] In 621 Dou Jiande was beaten. His generals did not know whom to follow.[31] Pei Ju, with Wei Zheng and Li Gongyan, led Cao Dan and the eight seals over to the Tang. With them went the land east of the mountains.[1] In the Zizhi tongjian, the commander Qi Shanxing persuades the generals to give up. Pei Ju and Cao Dan lead the officials, with Dou’s wife and the eight seals, to the Tang.[32] The Wei Zheng of this passage bears the name of the first-named author of the Sui Shu, under whom its biographies were presented in 636.[1] The Tang made Pei Ju left shuzi of the crown prince’s household, then zhanshi, then minister of the Board of Revenue.[1]

Two of his counsels at the Tang court touch the Göktürks.[33] In 625 Tong Yabgu asked for a Tang princess. Gaozu asked Pei Ju what to do.[34] Pei Ju answered that the northern raiders were strong. He said that the state should befriend the distant and attack the near. The marriage should be granted to overawe Ilig Khan, whom the texts call Jieli. After some years, he said, the court could think again.[34] Another account names Feng Lun beside Pei Ju as the author of this policy, summed up as befriending the distant and attacking the near.[35] Gaozu then promised the marriage to Tong Yabgu. But Ilig invaded just then and cut the route to the west, and the marriage was not carried out.[36] The Tongdian gives the same words to Feng Deyi.[37] The marriage is told in Tong Yabgu. In the same year Pei Ju, then shizhong, argued before Gaozu that Liaodong had been the land of Jizi and a Han commandery.[38] He said that Liaodong could not be allowed to stand as a state that owed no allegiance. To treat Goguryeo as an equal, he said, would make the four barbarians despise China.[38] Gaozu dropped the matter.[38] The argument repeats the one that he had given Yangdi in 607.[39]

In 626 Gaozu sent him to the Eastern Palace to tell the officers and men there to disperse.[40] Later that year, as minister of the Board of Revenue, he asked for a gift of one bolt of silk to every household that the Göktürks had ravaged.[41] Taizong would not give the same to every household, large or small. He ordered it by head.[41] In the same year Taizong was vexed by bribe-taking officials. He had a gate clerk offered a bolt of silk. The clerk took it.[41] Taizong wished to put the clerk to death. Pei Ju objected that to put a bribe in a man’s way and then punish him was to trap him into the offence.[41] Taizong was pleased. He told the officials of the fifth rank and above that Pei Ju stood his ground in office and did not agree to his face.[41] The dated sources give neither the year of his death nor the manner of it.

Name and titles

The Sui Shu writes his name 裴矩. It gives his courtesy name as 弘大.[1] The chapter on the Western Regions calls him duke of Wenxi, 聞喜公, after the title he won in Lingnan.[11] Under Yuwen Huaji he was duke of Cai, 蔡國公.[1] The Chinese histories call him by his office as well. Huaji’s men speak of “Pei of the Yellow Gate”, 裴黃門, after the post of huangmen shilang that he held under Yangdi.[1]

Assessment

The Sui Shu praises his diligence. He was unwearied in the service of the state. He was at his post morning and night. The text finds few like him among the men of old.[1] Through many years in government and in the midst of disorder he never failed in integrity and caution.[1] It notes that in a court where civil and military officials were known for bribes, he alone kept to the ordinary rule. He had no taint of corruption.[1] It also blames him. He guessed the emperor’s wishes. He moved with the times.[1] Gaochang came to court. Yiwu gave land. Grain was stored at Qiemo. An army marched out of the Jade Gate. The country west of the pass was in an uproar, the Sui Shu says, in large part through Pei Ju.[1] The chapter on the Western Regions closes with the same charge. Pei Ju presented the Xiyu tuji to stir the emperor’s heart. As a result, the emperor went out through the Jade Gate himself and set up Yiwu and Qiemo.[11] The region from the pass to the desert was in turmoil. The people could not live.[11]

The Zizhi tongjian shares the blame. It counts him among the court favourites whom the emperor loved for their flattery.[17] It says that the western policy wore the Chinese state down until it fell. All of it came, it says, from Pei Ju’s urging.[12] After the story of Taizong’s test of bribery, Sima Guang remarks that Pei Ju was a flatterer under the Sui and loyal under the Tang.[41] The man had not changed, he says. Where a ruler dislikes to hear of his faults, loyalty turns into flattery. Where he likes plain speech, flattery turns into loyalty.[41]

What remains of his work is the preface of 607. It set the Western Regions down as three roads from Dunhuang. It named the Göktürks and the Tuyuhun as the powers that stood across them.[1] His plan against Heshana split the western Göktürks. His plots against Shibi were followed by Shibi’s refusal to come to court and by the siege of Yanmen.[42]

References

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z aa ab ac ad ae af ag ah ai aj ak al am an ao ap aq ar as at au av aw ax ay az ba bb bc bd be bf bg bh bi bj bk bl bm bn bo bp bq br bs bt bu bv bw bx by bz ca cb cc cd ce cf cg ch ci cj ck cl cm cn co cp cq cr cs ct cu cv cw cx cy cz da db dc dd de df Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67
  2. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 180
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 84
  4. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 192
  5. ^ a b Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 177
  6. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 177
  7. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 178
  8. ^ a b Yavuz 2025, p. 333
  9. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 84; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 178
  10. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 179
  11. ^ a b c d e f g h i Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 83
  12. ^ a b c d Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 180
  13. ^ Herrmann 1925, p. 571
  14. ^ Herrmann 1925, p. 580
  15. ^ a b c d Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 181
  16. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 180; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 181
  17. ^ a b Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 181
  18. ^ a b Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 84; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 181
  19. ^ a b c Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 182
  20. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 84; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 180
  21. ^ a b Mori 1983, p. 348
  22. ^ Mori 1983, p. 348–349
  23. ^ a b c Jagchid 1989, p. 41
  24. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 182
  25. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 184
  26. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 184
  27. ^ a b Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 185
  28. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 185
  29. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 187
  30. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 187
  31. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 189
  32. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 189
  33. ^ Tang Huiyao (Institutional History of the Tang), juan 94; Cefu yuangui, juan 990
  34. ^ a b Tang Huiyao (Institutional History of the Tang), juan 94; Cefu yuangui, juan 978; Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 191
  35. ^ Jagchid 1989, p. 151–152
  36. ^ Jagchid 1989, p. 152
  37. ^ Tongdian, juan 199
  38. ^ a b c Cefu yuangui, juan 990
  39. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67; Cefu yuangui, juan 990
  40. ^ Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 191
  41. ^ a b c d e f g Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance), juan 192
  42. ^ Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 84; Sui Shu (Book of Sui), juan 67

Sources

Literature

  • Albert Herrmann, Die Hephthaliten und ihre Beziehungen zu China (1925)
  • Emre-E. Yavuz, The Gokturk Empire: 2nd Edition (2025)
  • Sechin Jagchid; Van Jay Symons, Peace, War, and Trade Along the Great Wall. Nomadic-Chinese Interaction through Two Millennia (1989)
  • Masao Mori (護雅夫), Soğdluların Orta-Asya'daki Faaliyetleri (1983)

Related

What links here19

Persons
Chiji Shad · Duliu · Heshana Khan · Lady Xiang · Que Dadu Shad · Shegui Khan · Wei Jie · Yiwu Tudun Shad
States
Sui
Battles & Events
Assembly at Mount Yanzhi (609) · Death of Princess Dayi · Embassy of Cui Junsu (608) · Fall of Heshana Khan (611) · Murder of Shishu Huxi · Yangdi's Visit to Yami Khan (607)
Places
Yiwu
Institutions and Titles
Border Markets · The Economy of the Steppe Empires · Trade Routes of the Steppe

Cite this article

Yavuz, Emre-E. “Pei Ju.” Turkic Atlas, revised 8 November 2026. https://turkicatlas.org/persons/pei-ju/

Last revised: 8 November 2026