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Each source stands where it was written, in the lane of its tradition. The thin line reaching back to the left leads to the earliest events it reports; its length is the distance between the text and what it describes. The curved lines join a compilation to the works it copies: where they meet, two books tell one account.

90 source works on the time line, 39 with the reach of their reports, 20 dependencies.

The sources in time

600 BC 400 BC 200 BC 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 Shiji · -91 Shiji Han Shu · 111 Han Shu Song Shu · 487–488 Song Shu Nan Shi · 659 Nan Shi Nan Qi Shu · early 6th century, under the Liang Nan Qi Shu Wei Shu · 554 Wei Shu Bei Shi (History of the Northern Dynasties) · 659 Bei Shi Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance) · 1084 Zizhi tongjian Liang Shu · presented in 636 Liang Shu Sui Shu (Book of Sui) · 636 (annals); 656 (treatises) Sui Shu Tongdian · 766–801 Tongdian Zhou Shu (Book of Zhou) · 636 Zhou Shu Bei Qi Shu (Book of Northern Qi) · 636 Bei Qi Shu Cefu yuangui · 1013 Cefu yuangui Jiu Tangshu (Old Book of Tang) · 945 Jiu Tangshu Xin Tangshu (New Book of Tang) · 1060 Xin Tangshu Sanguozhi · 3rd century; commentary 429 Sanguozhi Hou Han Shu · 445 Hou Han Shu Tomb of Princess Linhe · 550 Tomb of Princess Linhe Record of the Western Regions · 646 or 648 Record of the Western Regions Life of Xuanzang · 688, in Yancong's edition Life of Xuanzang Fengshi Wenjian Ji · late 8th century Fengshi Wenjian Ji Li Deyu's Letters to the Kirghiz · 843 to 845 Li Deyu's Letters to the Kirghiz Tang Huiyao (Institutional History of the Tang) · 961 Tang Huiyao Issyk inscription · disputed: between the fifth and the third century BC Issyk inscription Bugut inscription · about 584 Bugut inscription Runiform finds in Mongolia, 1990 to 1999 · undated; the finder of one text proposes about 630 to 680 Runiform finds in Mongolia, 1990 to 1999 Begre inscription (E 11) · disputed: from the seventh century to the ninth or later Begre inscription Runiform inscriptions of the Khazar lands · seventh to tenth century, by the position of the finds; no inscription is dated by its own text Runiform inscriptions of the Khazar lands Yenisei inscriptions · disputed: from the seventh century to the tenth; no inscription is dated Yenisei inscriptions Afrasiab paintings · 660 Afrasiab paintings South Yenisei inscriptions · The eighth to the tenth century by the graves and stelae that carry the texts. No text gives a date. South Yenisei inscriptions Szarvas needle case inscription · about the eighth century Szarvas needle case inscription Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós · the vessels in the eighth and ninth centuries by their style; the inscriptions disputed Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós Ulaangom inscription · Placed in the first half of the eighth century by its first reader, on the strength of one word that a second reader reads differently. The other study gives no date. Ulaangom inscription Altın Köl Inscriptions · undated; the year 711 follows if the dead man is the Kirghiz khan Bars Beg; the letter forms have led others to date both stones to the end of the ninth century Altın Köl Inscriptions Ongi inscription · disputed, between 716 and 740 Ongi inscription Küli Čor inscription · disputed, between 719 and 725 Küli Čor inscription Tonyukuk inscription · about 720 to 725, or 732 to 734 on a second dating Tonyukuk inscription Nalaikh Inscription · about 730, by estimate; no dated find supports it, and the authenticity of the piece is itself questioned Nalaikh Inscription Kül Tegin inscription · 732 Kül Tegin inscription Bilge Khan inscription · 735 Bilge Khan inscription Suji inscription · disputed: before 780, or after 840 Suji inscription Tariat inscription · 750–756 Tariat inscription Hoyto Tamir inscriptions · Three texts carry animal-year dates, which one reckoning sets in 753 and 756. The editors place at least two further texts in the Uyghur age by the tamga cut at their end. The other texts have no stated date. Hoyto Tamir inscriptions Šine-Usu inscription · 759–761 Šine-Usu inscription Tes inscription · Placed at about 750, at about 761 or 762, or after 760–761. No year is legible in a form that all readers accept. Tes inscription Karabalghasun inscription · 800–830 Karabalghasun inscription Protobulgarian sign corpus · mostly the ninth century, above all under Omurtag (814 to 831) Protobulgarian sign corpus Murfatlar inscriptions · second half of the ninth century to the first half of the tenth Murfatlar inscriptions Sogdian inscriptions of the upper Indus · third to fifth century; a few before the Ancient Letters, most not before the fifth century, none after the beginning of the seventh Sogdian inscriptions of the upper Indus Sogdian Ancient Letters · 313 by the prevailing reckoning; 196 by another Sogdian Ancient Letters Mount Mugh documents · the decade after 710 Mount Mugh documents Sogdian inscriptions of the Talas valley · beginning of the tenth to beginning of the eleventh century; the last February–March 1026 Sogdian inscriptions of the Talas valley Priscus · after 472; published soon after 476 Priscus Theophylact Simocatta · begun after 610 and before 638, probably in the late 620s, under Heraclius Theophylact Simocatta Theophanes the Confessor · c. 810–814 Theophanes the Confessor Procopius · the 550s Procopius Theophanes of Byzantium · after 581, probably in the last years of Maurice Theophanes of Byzantium Menander Protector · after 582, under the emperor Maurice Menander Protector Nikephoros · probably the 780s Nikephoros De administrando imperio · about 948 to 952 De administrando imperio Ammianus Marcellinus · completed most probably in the winter of 392/393 Ammianus Marcellinus Jordanes · 551 Jordanes Sebeos · c. 655, with notices added down to 661 Sebeos Movsēs Dasxurancʿi · 10th century, drawing on seventh-century material Movsēs Dasxurancʿi Ibn Rusta · about 290 AH (903), using older material Ibn Rusta al-Iṣṭakhrī · about 320 AH (932) al-Iṣṭakhrī aṯ-Ṯaʿālibī · between 408 and 412 of the hijra, about 1017 to 1021 aṯ-Ṯaʿālibī Tabari · early 10th century Tabari Ibn Fadlan · after 922 Ibn Fadlan al-Masʿūdī · the Meadows of Gold in the 940s; al-Tanbīh in 956 al-Masʿūdī Marvazī (Ṭabāʾiʿ al-ḥayawān) · about 1120 (514 AH) Marvazī Narshakhī, History of Bukhara · 943 or 944 (Arabic original); Persian version 1128; abridged and enlarged 1178 Narshakhī, History of Bukhara Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam · 982 Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam Shahnameh · completed about 1010 Shahnameh Gardīzī (Zayn al-akhbār) · about 1050 (about 440 AH) Gardīzī Irk Bitig · 930 Irk Bitig Kutadgu Bilig · 1069–1070 Kutadgu Bilig Dīvān Lughāt al-Turk · 1073–1077 Dīvān Lughāt al-Turk Tomb of Kang Ye · 571 Tomb of Kang Ye John of Ephesus · Part III begun before 578 and carried to 588; book VI, chapter 23 written before 581 John of Ephesus Tomb of An Jia · 579 Tomb of An Jia Tomb of Shi Jun · 580 Tomb of Shi Jun Tomb of Yu Hong · 592 Tomb of Yu Hong Old Tibetan report on the northern kings · mid-8th century, soon after the founding of the Uyghur khaganate Old Tibetan report on the northern kings The Kievian letter · about 930; the tenth and the eleventh century are both argued The Kievian letter The Schechter letter · middle of the tenth century The Schechter letter The Khazar correspondence · Hasdai's letter after 954 and before 961; Joseph's reply about 960 The Khazar correspondence Russian Primary Chronicle · about 1113, revised in the twelfth century Russian Primary Chronicle
written earliest events reported copies from The time line scrolls sideways.

The sources in figures

WorkTraditionWrittenEarliest eventsDistanceDraws on
Shiji Chinese -91
Han Shu Chinese 111 Shiji
Song Shu Chinese 487–488 420 67 years
Nan Shi Chinese 659 420 239 years Song Shu, Nan Qi Shu, Liang Shu
Nan Qi Shu Chinese early 6th century, under the Liang 479 21 years
Wei Shu Chinese 554 386 168 years
Bei Shi Chinese 659 Wei Shu, Zhou Shu, Sui Shu
Zizhi tongjian Chinese 1084 Wei Shu, Zhou Shu, Sui Shu, Bei Shi
Liang Shu Chinese presented in 636 502 134 years
Sui Shu Chinese 636 (annals); 656 (treatises)
Tongdian Chinese 766–801 Sui Shu, Zhou Shu
Zhou Shu Chinese 636
Bei Qi Shu Chinese 636 532 104 years Bei Shi
Cefu yuangui Chinese 1013 Tongdian, Jiu Tangshu
Jiu Tangshu Chinese 945 618 327 years
Xin Tangshu Chinese 1060 618 442 years Jiu Tangshu
Sanguozhi Chinese 3rd century; commentary 429
Hou Han Shu Chinese 445
Tomb of Princess Linhe Chinese 550 542 8 years (eyewitness)
Record of the Western Regions Chinese 646 or 648 629 17 years (eyewitness)
Life of Xuanzang Chinese 688, in Yancong's edition
Fengshi Wenjian Ji Chinese late 8th century
Li Deyu's Letters to the Kirghiz Chinese 843 to 845 843 0 years
Tang Huiyao Chinese 961 618 343 years
Issyk inscription Steppe disputed: between the fifth and the third century BC (eyewitness)
Bugut inscription Steppe about 584 552 32 years
Runiform finds in Mongolia, 1990 to 1999 Steppe undated; the finder of one text proposes about 630 to 680
Begre inscription Steppe disputed: from the seventh century to the ninth or later
Runiform inscriptions of the Khazar lands Steppe seventh to tenth century, by the position of the finds; no inscription is dated by its own text
Yenisei inscriptions Steppe disputed: from the seventh century to the tenth; no inscription is dated
Afrasiab paintings Steppe 660 650 10 years (eyewitness)
South Yenisei inscriptions Steppe The eighth to the tenth century by the graves and stelae that carry the texts. No text gives a date. (eyewitness)
Szarvas needle case inscription Steppe about the eighth century
Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós Steppe the vessels in the eighth and ninth centuries by their style; the inscriptions disputed
Ulaangom inscription Steppe Placed in the first half of the eighth century by its first reader, on the strength of one word that a second reader reads differently. The other study gives no date. (eyewitness)
Altın Köl Inscriptions Steppe undated; the year 711 follows if the dead man is the Kirghiz khan Bars Beg; the letter forms have led others to date both stones to the end of the ninth century
Ongi inscription Steppe disputed, between 716 and 740 (eyewitness)
Küli Čor inscription Steppe disputed, between 719 and 725 (eyewitness)
Tonyukuk inscription Steppe about 720 to 725, or 732 to 734 on a second dating 679 41 years (eyewitness)
Nalaikh Inscription Steppe about 730, by estimate; no dated find supports it, and the authenticity of the piece is itself questioned
Kül Tegin inscription Steppe 732 552 180 years
Bilge Khan inscription Steppe 735
Suji inscription Steppe disputed: before 780, or after 840
Tariat inscription Steppe 750–756 741 9 years (eyewitness)
Hoyto Tamir inscriptions Steppe Three texts carry animal-year dates, which one reckoning sets in 753 and 756. The editors place at least two further texts in the Uyghur age by the tamga cut at their end. The other texts have no stated date. (eyewitness)
Šine-Usu inscription Steppe 759–761 744 15 years (eyewitness)
Tes inscription Steppe Placed at about 750, at about 761 or 762, or after 760–761. No year is legible in a form that all readers accept. (eyewitness)
Karabalghasun inscription Steppe 800–830 744 56 years
Protobulgarian sign corpus Steppe mostly the ninth century, above all under Omurtag (814 to 831)
Murfatlar inscriptions Steppe second half of the ninth century to the first half of the tenth
Sogdian inscriptions of the upper Indus Sogdian third to fifth century; a few before the Ancient Letters, most not before the fifth century, none after the beginning of the seventh (eyewitness)
Sogdian Ancient Letters Sogdian 313 by the prevailing reckoning; 196 by another 311 2 years
Mount Mugh documents Sogdian the decade after 710 710 0 years (eyewitness)
Sogdian inscriptions of the Talas valley Sogdian beginning of the tenth to beginning of the eleventh century; the last February–March 1026 (eyewitness)
Priscus Greek after 472; published soon after 476 433 1 years (eyewitness)
Theophylact Simocatta Greek begun after 610 and before 638, probably in the late 620s, under Heraclius 582 28 years
Theophanes the Confessor Greek c. 810–814 284 526 years Theophylact Simocatta
Procopius Greek the 550s 527 23 years
Theophanes of Byzantium Greek after 581, probably in the last years of Maurice 566 15 years
Menander Protector Greek after 582, under the emperor Maurice 557 25 years
Nikephoros Greek probably the 780s 602 178 years
De administrando imperio Greek about 948 to 952
Ammianus Marcellinus Latin completed most probably in the winter of 392/393 375 17 years
Jordanes Latin 551 370 181 years Priscus, Ammianus Marcellinus
Sebeos Armenian c. 655, with notices added down to 661 572 83 years
Movsēs Dasxurancʿi Armenian 10th century, drawing on seventh-century material
Ibn Rusta Arabic about 290 AH (903), using older material
al-Iṣṭakhrī Arabic about 320 AH (932)
aṯ-Ṯaʿālibī Arabic between 408 and 412 of the hijra, about 1017 to 1021
Tabari Arabic early 10th century
Ibn Fadlan Arabic after 922 921 0 years (eyewitness)
al-Masʿūdī Arabic the Meadows of Gold in the 940s; al-Tanbīh in 956
Marvazī Arabic about 1120 (514 AH)
Narshakhī, History of Bukhara Persian 943 or 944 (Arabic original); Persian version 1128; abridged and enlarged 1178 673 270 years
Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam Persian 982 982 0 years
Shahnameh Persian completed about 1010
Gardīzī Persian about 1050 (about 440 AH)
Irk Bitig Turkic 930
Kutadgu Bilig Turkic 1069–1070
Dīvān Lughāt al-Turk Turkic 1073–1077
Tomb of Kang Ye Other 571 571 0 years (eyewitness)
John of Ephesus Other Part III begun before 578 and carried to 588; book VI, chapter 23 written before 581 571 7 years
Tomb of An Jia Other 579 579 0 years (eyewitness)
Tomb of Shi Jun Other 580 580 0 years (eyewitness)
Tomb of Yu Hong Other 592 592 0 years (eyewitness)
Old Tibetan report on the northern kings Other mid-8th century, soon after the founding of the Uyghur khaganate
The Kievian letter Other about 930; the tenth and the eleventh century are both argued
The Schechter letter Other middle of the tenth century
The Khazar correspondence Other Hasdai's letter after 954 and before 961; Joseph's reply about 960
Russian Primary Chronicle Other about 1113, revised in the twelfth century

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