141 articles

Places

Regions, mountains, rivers and cities.

Afu River minimal River of the Zhou Shu's Suo origin story of the Göktürks. Between it and the Jian a son of Yizhi Nishidu founded the state of Qigu, a Chinese name of the Kirghiz.
Aksu Oasis state west of Kucha, called Gumo by the Han Shu and Baluka by Xuanzang. It produced copper, iron and orpiment, and its fine felts and woollens were prized by its neighbours.
Altai The mountain range where Russia, Kazakhstan, Mongolia and China meet. On its southern slope the Ashina worked iron for the Rouran, and from its shape the Chinese histories derive their name.
Amga Korgan minimal Fortress where the Göktürk army wintered in the war against the Nine Oguz. Kül Tegin held the camp there, and the Bilge Khan inscription dates a hard winter to the stay. Its site is not known.
Anbei Protectorate minimal Tang protectorate of the steppe north of the desert, named the Pacified North. It stands at the end of a line that began with the Yanran protectorate of 647 and passed through Hanhai.
Anxi Protectorate Tang protectorate over the Western Regions, set up at Xizhou in 640. Its seat later stood at Kucha, and the Four Garrisons of the Tarim lay under it until the Tibetans took them.
Aquileia Chief city of Venetia at the head of the Adriatic. Attila's Huns took it in 452 after a long siege, the first blow of their invasion of Italy, and sacked it.
Argu minimal The land from Isfijab to Balasaghun north of the Syr Darya, where Sogdian and Turkic were both spoken. A Sogdian and Turkic stronghold into the twelfth century and the cradle of the Karakhanid state.
Bactria minimal The country south of the Oxus around Balkh. It fell to Persia in the partition of the Hephthalite lands, and the Göktürks took its cities in 588.
Badghis minimal Region near Herat. A Göktürk army under Šāba advanced as far as Badghis and Herat in 588–589, and Bahram Chobin marched beyond both to destroy it.
Baidao Plain Baidao, 白道川, on the Chinese frontier between the desert and the Yellow River. Ishbara Khan took refuge there under Sui protection in 585, and in 630 the Tang generals joined there to attack Ilig Khan.
Balanjar minimal Khazar city in the North Caucasus and the name of a Turkic group. The Arabs raided it in 642, which began the century of war between Arabs and Khazars.
Balasaghun minimal Town in the Chu valley, the chief town of the land of Argu. Its people spoke both Sogdian and Turkic, and Sogdians in Turkic dress lived there as the Soghdaq. Later a Karakhanid capital.
Balkh minimal The chief city of eastern Khurasan, at the edge of the mountains. One of the cities of Bactria the Göktürks took in 588, and a centre of Buddhism before the Arab conquest.
Bay Balïq Town on the Selenga that the Uyghur khan Bayanchur had built from 757 by Sogdians and Chinese. Its name means Rich Town, and the Šine-Usu inscription names it among his works.
Beihai minimal The Northern Sea of the Chinese histories, 北海, the northern bound of Mukan Khan's realm, five or six thousand li north of the desert. One translation renders it as Lake Baikal.
Beilou Pass minimal Frontier pass of the Tang. In 624, after the peace at Binzhou, Ilig Khan asked to come to it and open a mutual market, and the Tang emperor could not refuse him.
Beiting The Northern Court, a Chinese name of position. The Tang protectorate north of the Tian Shan carried it; so did a western khan's camp west of Mount Zuhe. Two grounds, one name.
Berel Burial ground on the Bukhtarma in the Kazakh Altai. Its great mounds of the fourth and third centuries BC kept frozen chambers with harnessed horses; a few Göktürk-period graves lie beside them.
Beshbalik Town north of the Tian Shan, the Tang Beiting. Kapgan Khan's army failed before its walls in 714; six years later Tonyukuk destroyed the Basmïl there.
Bodeng Ningli minimal Bare high mountain four or five hundred li from Dujin, the khan's seat, that the Göktürks called 勃登凝黎, glossed in Chinese as the spirit of the earth. The Zhou Shu names it beside the khan's yearly sacrifices.
Bosporos Roman city at the eastern end of the Crimea, the ancient Panticapaeum by the strait of the same name. A Göktürk army and the Utigurs took it while the envoy Valentinos was with the Göktürks.
Bukhara Sogdian city in the lower Zerafshan valley and seat of the largest Hephthalite garrison. Taken by Istemi's army, it became the residence of the Ashina nobility in the west.
Cave of the ancestors The cave to which the khan led the nobles once a year to sacrifice, according to the Zhou Shu. The one Göktürk cult site the Chinese record and the inscriptions never mention.
Chach The Tashkent oasis on the middle Syr Darya, a zone of contact between nomad and settled. It entered the Sogdian sphere under Göktürk overlordship in the sixth century.
Chang'an minimal Capital of China under the Han, the Sui and the Tang, the modern Xi'an. The Sogdians called it Khumdan, after Xianyang, the capital of the Qin nearby.
Cherson Greek city on the south-western coast of the Crimea, held by Rome. Valentinos sailed by it to the Göktürks in 576, and in 579 the emperor said that Göktürks were encamped there.
Chuzhe River minimal River of the Zhou Shu's Suo origin story of the Göktürks, on which a son of Yizhi Nishidu founded a state. It is identified with the Yenisei.
Dali City minimal Walled town in Shuozhou, 大利城, that the Sui built in 599 for Yami Khan, whom they had made Qimin Khan, and for the Göktürks who came over to him.
Derbent Fortress city on the Caspian shore of Dagestan, the 'gate' of the Persian and Arabic names. Khosrow I walled it against Sinjibu; Börü Shad came before it in 627.
Dingxiang Frontier town and commandery 定襄, built for Yami Khan in 600. The Göktürks kept the Sui court in exile there, and Li Jing's night attack on it in 630 began the end of the eastern khaganate.
Dujin Garrison minimal The old garrison of Dujin, 度斤舊鎮, to which Yami Khan moved south in 597 after his marriage to a Sui princess. From there he reported Tulan Khan's movements to the Sui.
Dunhuang Oasis town at the western end of the Gansu corridor, the gate of China toward the Tarim. Home of a Sogdian community from the fourth century. The Ancient Letters were found near it.
Dzungaria The basin between the Altai and the Tian Shan. Through its Dzungarian Gate the Göktürks reached the Tarim, and there the two wings of the khaganate met.
Egiin Gol River valley in northern Mongolia where a survey of 246 square kilometres recorded Xiongnu settlements at the mouth of every wide side valley. Excavation there found wheat and barley.
Ektag The mountain where Istemi received the Roman embassy of 569. Menander gives the name and renders it as the Golden Mountain. Whether it lay in the Tian Shan or the Altai is argued.
Eyang Ridge minimal Ridge on the Tang frontier near Dingxiang. From it Li Jing fell on Dingxiang by night in the first month of 630, and Ilig Khan fled to the edge of the desert.
Ferghana The valley of the upper Syr Darya, the Dayuan of the Han sources. A country of walled towns and famous horses. The Han went to war for its horses at the end of the second century BC.
Gaochang The kingdom of the Turfan depression, Karakhoja, ruled by the Qu family from 502 to 640. Xizhou under the Tang from 640, Qocho under the Uyghurs.
Gate of Sul Fortified gate on the northern frontier of Sasanian Persia, walled by Khosrow I. The khagan Sinjibu turned back before it, according to Tabari. It lay in Gurgan or at the Caucasus.
Gol Mod Name of two Xiongnu cemeteries in Mongolia. Gol Mod 2, in the Khanui valley, has some 570 stone tombs, among them the largest Xiongnu tomb known, 83 metres long with its ramp.
Gouzhu Pass minimal Mountain pass in northern Shanxi on the road from Mayi to Taiyuan. The Xiongnu crossed it in 200 BC; in 619 Shibi Khan sent the warlord Liu Wuzhou into it with Göktürk riders.
Gurgan Province at the south-eastern corner of the Caspian, the Hyrcania of the Greeks. Khosrow I ringed it with fortresses, and its stone built the walls of Sul, before which a khagan turned back.
Hebei Country 河北 north of the Yellow River and east of the Taihang mountains. Göktürk horsemen raided it with the rebel Liu Heita in 622, and Kapgan Khan carried off its people in 698.
Heng'an Frontier garrison town of the Sui and Tang in northern Shanxi. Tardush beat a Sui army there; from 623 to 627 it was the base of a Chinese warlord allied with Ilig Khan.
Herat City of Khurasan on the Hari Rud, the Haraiwa of the Achaemenid satrapies. Tabari's Šāba advanced to it in 588, and Bahram Chobin marched beyond it to kill him.
Huaihuang The easternmost of the Six Garrisons of the Northern Wei. North of it Bumin destroyed the main Rouran army between February and early March 552, and the khaganate ended.
Huo Country of Tokharistan on the Oxus and seat of Tardu Shad, eldest son of the western Yabgu Khan, about 630. Its Göktürk king ruled the small states south of the Iron Gate.
Ikar minimal Place in wide plains, four hundred miles from the Golden Mountain, where a Göktürk khagan and three allied khagans defeated the rebel Turum, according to Theophylact Simocatta.
Iron Gate minimal The defile south of Samarkand that the Orkhon inscriptions name as the western limit of Göktürk campaigning. Tonyukuk says the army reached it and the Sogdians came in.
Iron Mountain Mountain to which Ilig Khan fled with several tens of thousands of men in 630. There Li Jing broke him while Tang envoys were in his camp, and the eastern khaganate ended.
Issyk-Kul Lake in the mountains of the Tian Shan, the Great Clear Lake of Xuanzang. The pilgrim followed its shore to Suyab and the court of the western Göktürk khan.
Itil Capital of the Khazar Khaganate on the lower Volga. Arabic geographers describe a city on both banks of the river. Its site has not been found.
Ivolga minimal Fortified Xiongnu settlement in Buryatia, about 7 hectares, with ditches, a palisade, dwellings with heating flues and storage pits. Its finds include barley, wheat, millet and sickles.
Jade Gate Gate of the Han frontier in the desert west of Dunhuang, 玉門關. Wudi's line of posts ended at it, and the roads into the Tarim began there. The Tang histories still set Shegui's realm by it.
Jian River minimal River of the Zhou Shu's Suo origin story of the Göktürks. A son of Yizhi Nishidu founded the state of Qigu between it and the Afu. It is identified with the upper Yenisei.
Jiaohe Walled city of the Turfan basin on an island between two river arms. Capital of the Former Cheshi, it gave its name to a title at the court of Gaochang and to the Tang army that marched against it.
Jin River minimal River 金河 on the Sui frontier, up which the emperor Yangdi travelled in 607 to Yami Khan's camp. A town of that name was built for Yami in 600, and in 629 a Tang army marched by the Jinhe road.
Jingyang minimal County in the capital region of the Tang. There Yuchi Jingde beat Ilig Khan's army in 626 and took an irkin captive, days before Ilig reached the Wei river.
Jinyang minimal The Northern Qi's second capital in Shanxi and its garrison against the steppe. A Göktürk and Zhou army lay before it through the winter of 563 and failed to take it.
Jiuquan Town and commandery 酒泉 in Gansu. The first envoy to the Göktürks, the Sogdian An Nuopantuo, came from it in 545; Taspar Khan besieged it in 578, and Tardush attacked it.
Karashahr Oasis kingdom between Gaochang and Kucha, called Yanqi by the Chinese. Channels watered its fields and a lake gave it fish and salt. It served the western Göktürks until the Tang took it.
Kashgar Oasis kingdom at the western end of the Tarim Basin, called Shule by the Chinese. It lay on the road to the Pamirs. Its rice, millet, metals and brocade were supplied to the Göktürks every year.
Kemijkat minimal Town where the Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam of 982 has the Kirghiz khan live, the only town of the country. Its name may be a garbled Midizhi, the khan's camp of the Tang histories, or Kemijkat on the Kem.
Kesh Sogdian town and kingdom south of Samarkand, called Shi by the Chinese, on the road to the Iron Gate and Tokharistan. Under the Sui its lord built a new town of some 20,000 households.
Khorasan Eastern quarter of Sasanian Persia, whose name means the east. Bahram Chobin rose from it against his king after his victory over the Göktürks, and fled through it to the khagan.
Khorezm minimal The oasis of the lower Amu Darya south of the Aral Sea. Conquered by the Arabs under Qutayba. From the ninth century its merchants replaced the Sogdians on the road to the Volga and the Khazars.
Khöshöö Tsaidam Site in the upper Orkhon valley with the memorial complexes of Kül Tegin and Bilge Khan and three smaller monuments. Yadrintsev found it in 1889, and a 1958 expedition dug the Kül Tegin complex.
Khotan Oasis kingdom on the southern edge of the Tarim Basin, on the road from the Pamirs to China. It had a Sogdian community by the third century. The Karakhanids took it in 1006.
Kögmen Wooded mountain range on the road from the Göktürk lands to the Kirghiz. The Göktürks crossed it through deep snow to destroy the Kirghiz khan; its place is identified with the Tannu-Ola or the Sayan.
Kucha Oasis kingdom on the northern rim of the Tarim, the largest of them. The western Göktürk khans placed their courts north of it, and the Tang made it the seat of the Anxi protectorate.
Kujie Valley minimal Valley on the northern frontier of the Sui. Southeast of it the Sui general Yang Su broke a second raid on the people of Yami Khan, the Sui client on the Göktürk throne, about 601.
Lake Sevan minimal Lake in Armenia, the lake of Getam of the Armenian history of the Albanians. On its banks the vanguard of the Göktürk army of the north destroyed a Persian army in 629 or 630.
Liaohai minimal The Liao sea of the Zhou Shu, 遼海, the eastern bound of Mukan Khan's realm. From it the realm ran ten thousand li west to the Western Sea.
Lingzhou Prefecture 靈州 on the northern frontier of Sui and Tang China. Sui armies marched against the Göktürks by its road, Ilig Khan and Kapgan Khan raided it, and Suni Shi camped north-west of it.
Loulan Walled town and kingdom on the Salt Marsh, the Lop Nor, at the eastern end of the Tarim. Under Chinese garrisons in the third and fourth centuries, a meeting place of Indians, Chinese and Sogdians.
Luntai minimal Town east of Kucha on the northern road of the Tarim Basin. The Han farmed there from about 100 BC, Li Guangli sacked it, and under the Tang its post collected the duty on the northern route.
Luoyang minimal Chinese capital on the Luo river, sacked in 190, 311 and 535. The Sogdians called it Srg. Its fall in 311 to the Xiongnu of Han is reported in Ancient Letter II.
Margus Roman city on the Danube at the mouth of the Morava, opposite the fort of Constantia. Bleda and Attila made their first treaty with Constantinople outside it; its bishop later betrayed it to them.
Mayi Walled frontier town on the road from the steppe to Taiyuan. The Göktürks raided it, were lured to a market there and held it for a time; a Tang general called it their halfway halt.
Merv minimal Oasis city on the lower Murghab, the Sasanian stronghold of eastern Iran and base of the Arab conquest. One of the great cities of western Central Asia, and a Sogdian money market.
Minusinsk Basin minimal Lowland on the upper Yenisei, north of the Sayan, where modern accounts place the heartland of the Yenisei Kirghiz. Their graves of the ninth and tenth centuries are more numerous in Tuva.
Mount Dajin minimal Mountain beyond the northern frontier of the Sui. There Tardush, newly proclaimed Bujia Khan, met the army of Shi Wansui in 600 and fled from it without a fight.
Mount Jiansi Chuzheshi minimal Mountain of the Zhou Shu's Suo origin story and seat of the eldest son of Yizhi Nishidu. There he saved Abangbu's people with fire and was raised as lord under the name Türk.
Mount Mulai minimal Mountain north of the frontier garrison of Woye. There Issik Khan, Bumin's son and successor, broke the Rouran remnant under Dengshuzi in 553.
Mumocheng The walled town of the Rouran, named in the Liang Shu. In his last years Anagui held it as his capital, with a double wall and an elite guard.
Naissus Roman city on the Nišava, today Niš, birthplace of Constantine. The Huns destroyed it in the 440s, and Attila then claimed it as the market and frontier town between his realm and the empire.
Noin Ula Group of burial mounds in the mountains of northern Mongolia, opened in the 1920s. The princely graves held Chinese lacquer and silk, felt hangings and objects of steppe and Greek make.
Ordos The steppe plateau inside the great bend of the Yellow River, the ground from which every Chinese wall could be turned. The Tang settled the Göktürks here in 630.
Ordu-Balık The walled capital the Uyghurs built on the Orkhon after 744, on the site now called Karabalgasun. The first city on record that a steppe empire raised for itself. Burned by the Kirghiz in 840.
Orkhon valley The valley of the Orkhon in central Mongolia. Every steppe empire from the Xiongnu to the Mongols had its seat there, and the Göktürk inscriptions of the eighth century stand in it.
Ötüken The sacred mountain-forest in the Orkhon country from which the eastern steppe was ruled, from the Xiongnu and Rouran to the Göktürk and Uyghur Empires. It is said that whoever ruled over Ötüken could rule over the entire Eurasian Steppe.
Oxus minimal The river that divided the steppe world from Iran. Göktürks and Persia partitioned the Hephthalite lands along it about 560, and it stayed the boundary for a century.
Paikent Merchant town at the desert edge of the Bukhara oasis, walled on a square of 330 metres. The 'city of merchants' of the Arabic sources, sacked by Qutayba in 706.
Panjikent Sogdian town in the upper Zarafshan valley, east of Samarkand. Seat of Dēwāštīč, the last lord who fought the Arabs. The most thoroughly excavated town of Central Asia, with its wall paintings.
Partaw Capital of Caucasian Albania. Its defenders fled from the northern army of the Caucasus campaign, and Šat later camped north of the city to receive the submission of Albania.
Pingliang Frontier district in the east of today's Gansu, between the Gansu corridor and Chang'an. The Sui Shu calls the ancestors of the Göktürks mixed hu of Pingliang, of the surname Ashina.
Pliska minimal First capital of the Bulgar state on the lower Danube, near present-day Aboba. Nikephoros I took it in 811. Excavations began in 1899, and runic-looking marks are carved on its stones and bricks.
Qikou minimal The mouth of the desert north of the Yin mountains. The Sui placed Yami Khan there in 603; in 630 Ilig Khan fled to it, and a Tang army there barred his escape across the Gobi.
Quli minimal Small oasis state on the northern rim of the Tarim Basin, south of Wulei. Han field soldiers farmed there from about 100 BC, and Zheng Ji used its grain for his campaigns against Cheshi.
Samandar minimal Khazar city in the North Caucasus, north of Derbent. Early notices of the Khazars name it with Balanjar. Masʿūdī says the capital moved from here to Itil.
Samarkand Chief city of Sogdiana on the Zarafshan. Its citadel was raised by the Kidarites, and its Afrasiab painting shows Göktürk warriors at the feet of the king.
Sanmi Mountain minimal Mountain north of Kucha on which Shegui Khan set the court of the western Göktürks in the 610s. It may lie in the valley of the Tekes.
Sarkel Khazar fortress on the left bank of the Don, built in 838 with Byzantine help against the Hungarians and the Pechenegs. The Rus knew it as Belaya Vezha.
Shanyu Protectorate minimal Tang protectorate over the submitted Göktürks of the south, set up in 650 and seated at old Yunzhong. Its name recalled the chanyu of the Xiongnu. The revolt of 679 broke out inside it.
Shiveet Ulaan Memorial complex of the late seventh century in Bulgan province, Mongolia, with stone figures, lions and rams. One publication links its stone with tamgas of many tribes to the funeral of Ilterish Khan.
Shuozhou minimal Prefecture 朔州 on the northern frontier of Sui and Tang China. The Sui sent armies against the Göktürks by its road and built Dali in it for Yami Khan, and Ilig Khan plundered it in 625.
Sogdiana The land of the Zarafshan between the Amu Darya and the Syr Darya, with Samarkand and Bukhara at its heart. Held by the Hephthalites from 509, taken by the Göktürks about 560.
Suyab Town on the Chu river in present-day Kyrgyzstan, the site of Ak-Beshim. Seat of the western Göktürks from Tardush onward, and the Türgesh centre from 690.
Syr Darya minimal The northern of the two great rivers of Transoxiana. Tonyukuk's army crossed it on the march to the Iron Gate, and it is the Pearl River of the inscriptions.
Talas River and town between the Syr Darya and the Tian Shan. A Türgesh stronghold after Sulu Khan's murder, and the site of the battle of 751 that ended Tang power west of the Pamirs.
Tamatarkha minimal Town on the Taman peninsula by the Straits of Kerch. A Byzantine bishopric, and later the Rus Tmutarakan. According to some scholars, the Schechter Letter has the Khazars defend it against the Rus.
Tanhan Mountain Mountain north of Gaochang, under snow in summer, at the edge of the Tiele lands. There the Tiele set up their own khan in 605 after rising against the western Göktürk khan Heshana.
Taren River minimal River 他人水, at which the Göktürks gathered in the middle ten days of the fifth month to worship the spirit of heaven, according to the Zhou Shu.
Tarim Basin The desert basin south of the Tian Shan, rimmed by oasis cities. The Göktürks took it in the 550s and held it as tributary; the Tang made it the Four Garrisons.
Thousand Springs Plain of springs and pools between Suyab and Talas, where the khans of the western Göktürks spent the summer. Tong Yabgu moved his court there.
Tian Shan minimal The range that divides the northern steppe from the Tarim oases. The western khaganate held both its sides, and the passes through it carried the trade that paid the khan.
Tiflis Capital of the Georgian kingdom of Kartli, held for the Persians in the 620s. Heraclius and Börü Shad besieged it in 627. The Göktürks took and sacked it after the battle of Nineveh.
Togu Balık minimal Town where the Göktürks fought the first of their battles against the Nine Oguz in one year. Both Orkhon inscriptions name it. The Bilge Khan inscription has the army swim the river Toğla first.
Tola minimal The river east of the Orkhon in central Mongolia, and the ground of the Göktürk heartland. Tonyukuk beat the Oguz on it, and Kapgan Khan was killed on the road home from a victory there in 716.
Transoxiana minimal The country between the Oxus and the Syr Darya, the heart of Sogdian trade. It fell to the Göktürks with the Hephthalite lands and stayed the western khaganate's richest holding.
Tuz Köl of the Karluks minimal Salt lake in the country of the Khallukh, the Karluks, in the Ḥudūd al-ʿĀlam of 982. Seven Karluk tribes took their salt from it. Which lake of the Tian Shan region is meant is disputed.
Viminacium Roman city on the Danube in Moesia Superior, near modern Kostolac. The Huns razed it in 441, their first great conquest in the Balkan wars; a merchant taken there won his freedom among them.
Volga Great river of the western steppe, the Attila of Menander and the Atel of Theophanes. Göktürk power had crossed it by 571, when the chief of the Ugurs held the land beyond it for Istemi.
Woye minimal The westernmost of the Six Garrisons on the northern edge of the Ordos loop. The revolt of 524 began there, Issik Khan broke the Rouran remnant near it in 553, and the Zhou marched out by it in 564.
Wulei minimal Small oasis state east of Kucha on the northern road of the Tarim Basin. From 60 BC the seat of the Han Protector-General, chosen for its fertile land and its place in the Western Regions' middle.
Wuwei minimal Oasis town in the middle of the Gansu corridor, Guzang and Liangzhou in the older sources. Seat of a Sogdian community from the third century and capital of the Northern Liang.
Xiazhou Prefecture 夏州 south of the Yellow River. The Sui settled Yami Khan's people beside it, Shibi Khan crossed the river to it in 619, and the Göktürks raised Ashina Funian as khan there in 680.
Xihai The Western Sea of the Chinese histories, 西海, the western bound of the Göktürk realm and the setting of the Ashina origin legend. It has been identified with the Caspian, the Aral Sea or the Edzin Gol lakes.
Xing Ridge minimal Mountain pass on the road to Jinyang, held by the Northern Qi. In 563 a Zhou army forced it, and Mukan Khan joined that army with a hundred thousand riders.
Yanmen Frontier commandery and pass in northern Shanxi, the gate between the Chinese plain and the steppe. The Sui emperor was besieged inside it in 615; Ilig Khan came back to it in 621 and 622.
Yarkand minimal Oasis state at the south-western corner of the Tarim Basin, called Suoju by the Han Shu. It had an iron mountain and green jade, and after 60 BC it still paid yearly tribute to the Xiongnu.
Yingsuo minimal District north of Kucha where one of the two lesser khans of the western Göktürks resided under Heshana Khan. It may be the Yulduz valley.
Yinshan Mountains 陰山 on the northern frontier of China. Shibi Khan looked down on China from them, the peoples north of them rose against Ilig Khan in 627, and Li Jing broke Ilig there in 630.
Yiwu Oasis town at the eastern gate of the Western Regions, identified with Hami. Its lord, long subject to the Göktürks, surrendered its seven towns to the Tang in 630.
Youzhou Prefecture 幽州 in the north-east of China. Taspar Khan raided it in 578, the Sui and the Tang fought the Göktürks from it, and Töles Khan had his camp due north of it.
Yulin Sui commandery on the northern frontier, 榆林. There the emperor Yangdi received Yami Khan and Princess Yicheng in 607 and feasted 3,500 of his chiefs.
Yunzhong Commandery 雲中 on the northern frontier of China since the state of Zhao. The Rouran surrounded the Wei emperor there in 424, and the Tang named a Göktürk command and a protectorate after it.
Zhao Xin City Xiongnu town at Mount Tianyan, north of the Gobi, named after the Han marquis Zhao Xin. In 119 BC the Han army found a store of grain there, fed on it for a day and burned the rest.
Zhoupan minimal Frontier post 周槃 of Sui China, held by Daxi Zhangru against the Göktürk invasion of 582. Ishbara Khan fought him there for three days, and the Sui edict of 583 names the place.
Zihe Garrison minimal Frontier garrison on the Zihe river. Ishbara Khan's royal tent burned there on his way back from a hunt in 587, and he died a month later.

Image credits

Altai: Ka Nasi Lake in the Chinese Altai, astronaut photograph from the International Space Station, 2023. NASA, Public domain ↗
Aquileia: The Roman forum of Aquileia with the re-erected columns of its eastern portico, 2015. Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0 ↗
Argu: Ranges of the western Tian Shan with the Talas valley and the Karatau, astronaut photograph, 2014. NASA, Public domain ↗
Bactria: Silver coin of Eukratides I of Bactria, 170–145 BC, Cleveland Museum of Art 1999.319. Cleveland Museum of Art, CC0 ↗
Baidao Plain: Hohhot and the plain at the foot of the Daqing Shan, astronaut photograph, 2011. NASA, Public domain ↗
Balasaghun: The Chu valley around Bishkek below the snow-covered Kyrgyz range, astronaut photograph, 2009. NASA, Public domain ↗
Balkh: The plain of Balkh and Mazar-e Sharif below the mountains, astronaut photograph, 2007. NASA, Public domain ↗
Beilou Pass: Page of the Xin Tang Shu, chapter 215A, naming the Beilou pass, Yuan-period printed edition. National Archives of Japan, Public domain ↗
Beiting: Page of the Xin Tang Shu, chapter 215B, with the Southern and the Northern Court, Yuan-period printed edition. National Archives of Japan, Public domain ↗
Beshbalik: A rider with a halo and his mounted escort, wall painting of the West Temple at Beshbalik, tenth century. Zhentong Li, CC0 ↗
Bosporos: Excavated remains of ancient Panticapaeum on Mount Mithridates above Kerch, 2021. Alexxx Malev, CC BY-SA 2.0 ↗
Bukhara: Entrance to the Emir’s palace in Old Bukhara, between 1905 and 1915. Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii, Library of Congress, No known restrictions ↗
Chach: The Kukeldash madrasa in Tashkent, Turkestan album, 1865–1872. N. V. Bogaevskii, Library of Congress, No known restrictions ↗
Cherson: Ruins of a basilica at Chersonesus on the Black Sea near Sevastopol, 2023. Alexxx Malev, CC BY-SA 2.0 ↗
Dali City: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming Dali City (大利城), Japanese edition of 1844. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Derbent: Derbent between the Caspian shore and the foothills, astronaut photograph, 2005. NASA, Public domain ↗
Dingxiang: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming Dingxiang (定襄), Japanese edition of 1844. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Dujin Garrison: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming the old garrison of Dujin (度斤舊鎮), Japanese edition of 1844. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Dunhuang: Sand dunes in the desert south of Dunhuang, EO-1 image, 2012. NASA Earth Observatory, Jesse Allen and Robert Simmon, Public domain ↗
Dzungaria: Dunes and sedimentary layers in the Junggar Basin, astronaut photograph, 2023. NASA, Public domain ↗
Ektag: Menander's Greek text naming the mountain Ektag, with Latin translation, printed edition of 1851, p. 227. Karl Müller (ed.), Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum IV, Paris: Didot 1851; scan University of Toronto Libraries, Public domain ↗
Eyang Ridge: Page of the Xin Tang Shu, chapter 215, naming the Eyang ridge (惡陽嶺), Japanese edition of 1750. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Ferghana: The palace of Khudoyar Khan at Kokand in the Ferghana valley, Turkestan album, 1865–1872. Library of Congress, No known restrictions ↗
Gaochang: The ruins of Gaochang from the air, in the Turfan depression.
Gate of Sul: Illuminated opening pages of Bal'ami's Persian translation of Tabari's History, 13th–14th century. Library of Congress, African and Middle East Division, Public domain ↗
Gouzhu Pass: Mountains and a river valley near Dai county in northern Shanxi, astronaut photograph, 2004. NASA, Public domain ↗
Gurgan: The Gulf of Gorgan and the Miankaleh spit, south-eastern Caspian, astronaut photograph, 2022. NASA, Public domain ↗
Heng'an: Datong and its basin in northern Shanxi, astronaut photograph, 2010. NASA, Public domain ↗
Herat: The snow-covered valley of the Hari Rud east of Herat, astronaut photograph, 2003. NASA, Public domain ↗
Huaihuang: Dry lake bed on the plateau of Zhangbei county in northern Hebei, astronaut photograph, 2015. NASA, Public domain ↗
Huo: The irrigated valley of the Kunduz river at Baghlan, northern Afghanistan, astronaut photograph, 2007. NASA, Public domain ↗
Iron Gate: Page of Xuanzang's Record of the Western Regions describing the Iron Gate, Southern Song print. Sixi canon print, Southern Song; scan National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Iron Mountain: Page of the Xin Tang Shu, life of Li Jing, naming the Iron Mountain (鐵山), Japanese edition of 1750. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Issyk-Kul: Lake Issyk-Kul between the snow-covered ranges of the Tian Shan, astronaut photograph, 2019. NASA, Public domain ↗
Jin River: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming the Jin river (金河), Japanese edition of 1844. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Jiuquan: Pavilion at the Wine Spring in Suzhou, the modern Jiuquan, photograph of 1934. Irving C. Yew, Museum of Ethnography, Stockholm, Public domain ↗
Khorezm: The irrigated oasis of Urgench by the Amu Darya, astronaut photograph, 2022. NASA, Public domain ↗
Khotan: Envoy of Khotan, from a copy of “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, National Palace Museum, Taipei. The National Palace Museum, Taipei, CC BY 4.0 ↗
Kucha: Armoured horsemen on both sides of a city gate, wall painting from the cave temples of the Kucha region.
Kujie Valley: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming the Kujie valley (窟結谷), Japanese edition of 1844. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Lake Sevan: Lake Sevan in Armenia with snow on the surrounding mountains, astronaut photograph, April 2002. NASA, Public domain ↗
Liaohai: Page of the Zhou Shu, chapter 50, naming the Liao sea, Song-period printed edition. National Archives of Japan, Public domain ↗
Loulan: Sven Hedin's men digging out a house at Loulan, with a large clay jar, expedition of 1899–1902. Sven Hedin, Museum of Ethnography, Stockholm, Public domain ↗
Luoyang: Emperor Xiaowen and his entourage, relief from the Central Binyang Cave at Longmen near Luoyang, Northern Wei, about 522–523, Metropolitan Museum of Art 35.146. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, CC0 ↗
Margus: The Danube in Serbia where the Great Morava flows into it, astronaut photograph, 2016. NASA, Public domain ↗
Mayi: Shuozhou and its plain in northern Shanxi, astronaut photograph, 2011. NASA, Public domain ↗
Merv: The mosque and mausoleum of Yusuf Hamadani at ancient Merv, between 1905 and 1915. Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii, Library of Congress, No known restrictions ↗
Mount Dajin: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming Mount Dajin (大斤山), Japanese edition of 1844. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Mount Mulai: Page of the Zhou Shu, chapter 50, naming Mount Mulai, Jigu'ge edition of 1632. National Archives of Japan, Public domain ↗
Naissus: The Nišava in Niš with the walls of the fortress on its bank, 2014. Gagarin Miljkovich, CC BY 2.0 ↗
Ordos: The Yellow River and the Kubuqi dunes on the northern edge of the Ordos, astronaut photograph, 2022. NASA, Public domain ↗
Oxus: The Vakhsh and the Panj joining to form the Amu Darya, Landsat 8 image, 2014. NASA Earth Observatory, Jesse Allen, Public domain ↗
Paikent: The oasis of Bukhara and the surrounding desert, astronaut photograph, 2002. NASA, Public domain ↗
Panjikent: Excavated ruins of ancient Panjikent, Tajikistan, with mountains behind, 2023. Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0 ↗
Partaw: The brick tower mausoleum in Barda, Azerbaijan, 2019. Ludvig14, CC BY-SA 4.0 ↗
Qikou: Page of the Xin Tang Shu, life of Li Shiji, naming Qikou (磧口), Japanese edition of 1750. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Samarkand: Riders on camels and white birds, from the paintings of the Hall of the Ambassadors at Afrasiab, seventh century. Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0 ↗
Sanmi Mountain: Page of the Jiu Tang Shu, chapter 194B, naming Sanmi Mountain, Ming edition of 1538. National Archives of Japan, Public domain ↗
Sogdiana: Fields near Samarkand, between 1905 and 1915. Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii, Library of Congress, No known restrictions ↗
Suyab: Fields of the Chu valley around Tokmak, Kyrgyzstan, astronaut photograph, 2013. NASA, Public domain ↗
Syr Darya: Meanders of the Syr Darya in southern Kazakhstan, astronaut photograph, 2016. NASA, Public domain ↗
Talas: Ruins of the citadel of Aulie-Ata, the modern Taraz, Turkestan album, 1865–1872. Library of Congress, No known restrictions ↗
Tanhan Mountain: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 83, naming Tanhan Mountain, Yuan-period printed edition. National Archives of Japan, Public domain ↗
Tarim Basin: The Taklamakan in the Tarim Basin between the Tian Shan and the Kunlun, MODIS image, 2001. NASA Earth Observatory, Jacques Descloitres, Public domain ↗
Thousand Springs: Page of Xuanzang's Record of the Western Regions on the Thousand Springs, Southern Song print. Sixi canon print, Southern Song; scan National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Tian Shan: The Tian Shan with Lake Issyk-Kul, MODIS image, 2012. NASA Earth Observatory, Public domain ↗
Tiflis: View of Tiflis, between 1905 and 1915. Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii, Library of Congress, No known restrictions ↗
Transoxiana: The Amu Darya and the Syr Darya with the Kyzylkum between them, MODIS image, 2017. NASA Earth Observatory, Jesse Allen, Public domain ↗
Viminacium: Excavated Roman walls and brick pillars at the archaeological site of Viminacium near Kostolac, 2020. Ivan Radic, CC BY 2.0 ↗
Volga: The lower Volga and its floodplain between Volgograd and Astrakhan, astronaut photograph, March 2007. NASA, Public domain ↗
Woye: The Yellow River and the irrigated Hetao plain north of it, Inner Mongolia, astronaut photograph, 2022. NASA, Public domain ↗
Wuwei: Tower on a bastion of the city wall of Liangzhou, the modern Wuwei, photograph by C. G. Mannerheim, 1906–1908. C. G. Mannerheim, Finnish Heritage Agency, CC BY 4.0 ↗
Xihai: Opening page of the Sui Shu's chapter on the Göktürks (book 84), Japanese print of 1844. Kōdōkan, Takamatsu (print, 1844); scan National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Yingsuo: Horses of the Torguts on the pastures of the Yulduz valley, photograph by C. G. Mannerheim, 1906–1908. C. G. Mannerheim, Finnish Heritage Agency, CC BY 4.0 ↗
Yiwu: Street with a gateway in Hami, photograph by C. G. Mannerheim, 1906–1908. C. G. Mannerheim, Finnish Heritage Agency, CC BY 4.0 ↗
Zhoupan: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming Zhoupan, Yuan-period printed edition. National Archives of Japan, Public domain ↗
Zihe Garrison: Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming the Zihe garrison, Yuan-period printed edition. National Archives of Japan, Public domain ↗

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