142 articles

Battles & Events

A single engagement or a single day: battles and skirmishes, embassies, treaties, successions.

Up to 100 AD 7

Siege of Baideng 200 BC Siege of the founding emperor of Han on a hill north of Pingcheng, winter 200 BC. Bagatur held him for seven days with four hundred thousand horse, then let him go. The heqin settlement followed.
The Han–Xiongnu heqin treaties 200 BC Series of agreements between the Han court and the Xiongnu chanyu, 200 to 133 BC. Each gave the chanyu a princess, yearly deliveries and the title of brother, and was renewed until the Mayi ambush.
Mayi ambush 133 BC 133 BC. The Han hid three hundred thousand men around a frontier town and offered to sell it to the chanyu. He noticed the cattle grazing unattended and turned back, and the heqin settlement ended.
Mobei campaign, 119 BC 119 BC Han campaign across the Gobi, 119 BC. Wei Qing's army forced the chanyu Yizhixie to flee by night, and Huo Qubing's army beat the Left Worthy King. The Xiongnu court lost its seat south of the desert.
Xiongnu split of 48 48 AD 48. Eight southern tribes proclaimed their own chanyu against the court in the north, and the Xiongnu never came together again.
Han Reply to the Northern Xiongnu (AD 52) 52 minimal Reply of the Han court in AD 52 to the Northern chanyu, who had sent horses and furs and asked again for friendship. On Ban Biao's advice it sent silk and weapons and declined to send instruments.
Northern Xiongnu Market at Wuwei (AD 84) 84 minimal Trade of the Northern Xiongnu with Han merchants at Wuwei in AD 84, with more than 10,000 cattle and horses. The Southern chanyu raided the traders. In 85 the court had the captives bought back.

100–552 AD 19

The Gaoche Herds of 429 429 Northern Wei capture of the eastern Gaoche camp at Lake Bini in the eighth month of 429, after Taiwu's campaign against the Rouran. The Wei took more than a million horses, cattle and sheep, settled the Gaoche south of the desert, and the Wei Shu says that animal prices in the state fell and felt and hides piled up.
Treaty of Margus 435 Treaty between Bleda and Attila and the eastern empire, concluded on horseback outside Margus on the Danube. It doubled the yearly tribute to 700 pounds of gold and bound Rome to return all fugitives.
The Flight of the Ashina (439) 439 Flight of the Ashina with five hundred families to the Rouran after the Northern Wei destroyed the Northern Liang in 439, which made them the Rouran's ironworkers on the Golden Mountain.
Siege of Naissus 442 Attila's siege and capture of the Roman city of Naissus in the Balkan war of the 440s. He later fixed the ruined city as the frontier and the market between Huns and Romans.
Peace of Anatolius 443 Peace that the Roman commander Anatolius concluded with Attila after a Roman defeat in the Chersonese. Rome paid 6,000 pounds of gold in arrears and raised the yearly tribute to 2,100 pounds.
Embassy of Maximinus to Attila 449 Eastern Roman embassy to Attila in 449, led by Maximinus and described by Priscus, who went with it and saw Attila's court, his banquets and his judgements.
Battle of the Catalaunian Plains 451 Battle in Gaul in the summer of 451 between Attila's army and a coalition of Romans and Visigoths under Aetius. It ended Attila's campaign in the West.
The Great Sacrifice of the Gaoche 452 Sacrifice to Heaven by five Gaoche tribes under the Wei emperor Wencheng, 452 to 465. Tens of thousands raced horses, killed victims and sang, and the emperor came to the gathering.
Death of Attila 453 The death of Attila early in 453, on the night after his wedding to Ildico, and his funeral. Priscus, through Jordanes, describes the mourning, the dirge, the strava and the secret burial.
Battle of the Nedao 454 Battle in Pannonia in 454, at which the Gepid king Ardaric and the subject peoples defeated the sons of Attila. Attila's eldest son Ellac fell, and Hunnic rule over the middle Danube ended.
Rise of Anagui Khan 520 Anagui's way from a ten-day khan in exile to the arbiter between the two Wei courts, 520 to 546. The Northern Wei restored him in 521. By 546 his house was married into both halves of China.
Göktürk raid of 542 542 Göktürk raid on the Western Wei frontier at Liangu in the twelfth month of 542, the first dated one of the raids the Göktürks made every winter. Yuwen Ce had piles of firewood fired along the roads. The Göktürks took them for an army, fled and left their livestock and baggage behind.
The Göktürk–Wei alliance 545 Alliance of the Göktürks with the Western Wei, 545 to 557. The Wei gave Bumin a princess, handed the last Rouran to Mukan and fought beside him against the Tuyuhun.
Western Wei embassy of 545 545 The mission the Western Wei chancellor Yuwen Tai sent to the Göktürks in 545 under the Sogdian An Nuopantuo. For the first time a Chinese state addressed the Ashina as a party in their own right.
Defeat of the Tiele, 546 546 Bumin's interception of the Tiele rising against the Rouran. More than fifty thousand Tiele tents passed into his domain, and the Ashina became a power.
The Rouran Marriage Refusal (546) 546 Bumin's request to the Rouran khan Anagui for a marriage, and its refusal. Anagui called Bumin his blacksmith slave, and Bumin killed the envoy and broke with the Rouran.
Battle of Dzungaria, 552 552 Bumin destroyed the Rouran force sent west to stop him, in Dzungaria in January 552. It was the first of the two engagements that broke Anagui.
Battle of Huaihuang, 552 552 Bumin destroyed the main Rouran army north of Huaihuang in 552, which drove Anagui to his death within weeks and made Bumin khan.
Proclamation of Bumin Khan (552) 552 Bumin's assumption of the title Illig Khan after his victory over the Rouran in 552, which made the leader of the Ashina the first khan of the Göktürks and his wife a katun.

553–743 AD 99

Battle of Mount Mulai (553) 553 Issik Khan's victory over the Rouran remnant under Dengshuzi, north of the Woye garrison in 553. It left Dengshuzi to Mukan, who destroyed him and drove him to the Western Wei.
Mukan's Destruction of Dengshuzi (553–555) 553 minimal Campaign of Mukan Khan against the last Rouran in the steppe under Anagui's uncle Dengshuzi. Mukan destroyed them, and Dengshuzi fled with the survivors to the Western Wei.
The Qi March to Shuozhou (553) 553 minimal Campaign of the Northern Qi emperor Wenxuan at the end of 553. He took in the Rouran who fled from the Göktürks, set up Anluochen as their ruler and pursued the Göktürks as far as Shuozhou.
Flight of the Avars (557) 555 Westward flight of the Avars before the Göktürks, which brought them to the Alans and to Justinian's court about 557 and made them a lasting quarrel between the Göktürks and Rome.
The Qingmen Executions (555) 555 Western Wei surrender of the Rouran ruler Dengshuzi and some three thousand of his people to Mukan's envoys in 555. They were killed outside the Qingmen gate of Chang'an.
Göktürk–Wei Campaign against Tuyuhun (556) 556 Joint campaign of Mukan Khan and the Western Wei general Shi Ning against the Tuyuhun in 556. They took the towns of Shudun and Hezhen and the wife and children of the Tuyuhun ruler Kualü.
The Göktürk–Zhou alliance 557 Alliance of the Göktürks with the Northern Zhou against the Northern Qi, 557 to 581. It brought two joint campaigns, a Göktürk empress at Chang'an and a yearly tribute of silk.
Battle of Bukhara 560 The decisive engagement of the Göktürk–Hephthalite war, about 560. Istemi broke the Hephthalite king while Khosrow I closed from the south-west.
The Bargain with Mukan (562–563) 562 Northern Zhou embassy of Yang Jian and Wang Qing to Mukan Khan, which made him break with the rival Qi envoys, settle his daughter's marriage and ask for a joint war against the Qi.
Jinyang campaign, 563–564 563 The winter campaign that brought a Göktürk and Zhou army before the second capital of the Northern Qi. The city held, the assault of 564 failed, and Mukan plundered and went home.
The Woye and Luoyang Campaign (564) 564 Second joint campaign of the Northern Zhou and Mukan Khan against the Qi in 564. Yang Zhong marched out by Woye, Yuwen Hu was beaten before Luoyang, and Mukan withdrew.
The embassies to Ctesiphon, 568 567 Two embassies from the Göktürks to Khosrow I, both of them refused. The silk of the first was burned in front of the envoys. The members of the second died of poison.
Maniakh's embassy to Constantinople, 568 568 Göktürk embassy to Constantinople under the Sogdian Maniakh, received by Justin II at the start of his fourth year, which made the Göktürks allies of Rome against Persia.
Music of Empress Ashina (568) 568 Music of Samarkand and Kucha that came to the Zhou court at Chang'an in 568 with Empress Ashina, the Göktürk bride of Emperor Wu. Her lute player Sujiva brought seven modes.
The Göktürk–Byzantine alliance 568 Alliance of the Göktürks and the eastern Roman empire against Persia, sworn in Constantinople in 568. On Menander's account it broke at Bosporos in 576, and Heraclius renewed it in the Caucasus in 626–627.
Istemi's campaign against Persia, 569 569 Göktürk campaign against Sasanian Persia in 569 or 570, on which Istemi took the Roman envoy Zemarchos. At Talas Istemi set Rome above Persia before the Persian envoy.
The embassy of Zemarchos, 569 569 Rome's answer to Maniakh. Zemarchos was purified by fire, received at Ektag on a golden throne, taken along on a campaign toward Persia, and sent home by a road chosen to avoid an ambush.
Subjugation of the Alans and Onogurs (before 576) 572 Göktürk conquest of the Alans of the north Caucasus and of the Onogurs in the early 570s, which Turxanthos held up to the Roman envoy in 576 as the fate of those who resisted.
Taspar's Appointment of the Lesser Khans (572) 572 Taspar Khan's appointment of two lesser khans on his accession in 572: his nephew Ishbara over the east as Erfu Khan, a son of his brother Rudan Khan over the west as Buli Khan.
Khosrow's gift of maidens (573) 573 Gift of 2,000 captive maidens that Khosrow I sent to the Göktürks after taking Dara in 573, to win their service. On the road the women drowned themselves in a river.
Funeral of Istemi (576) 575 Göktürk funeral rites for Istemi, held in 576 by his son Turxanthos before the Roman envoys, who had to cut their faces, while four Hunnic captives were set beside the dead khan's horses.
Embassy of Valentinos (576) 576 Roman embassy to the western Göktürks in 576, sent to renew the alliance against Persia. Turxanthos received it in mourning for Istemi and held the envoys while Bosporos fell.
Siege of Bosporos, 576 576 Göktürk and Utigur siege of the Roman city of Bosporos in the Crimea in 576, which brought the Göktürk realm to its western limit on the Black Sea.
The Göktürks before Cherson (579) 576 Göktürk presence at the Roman city of Cherson in the Crimea about 579, possibly a siege, which the emperor Tiberius used to keep the Avars from crossing the Danube.
The Qi Court in Exile (577–580) 577 Taspar Khan's protection of the fugitive Qi prince Gao Shaoyi from 577 to 580, which made him emperor of Qi among the Göktürks and ended when Taspar handed him over to the Zhou.
The Raid on Youzhou (578) 578 Taspar Khan's raid on the Northern Zhou prefecture of Youzhou in 578, in which the Zhou general Liu Xiong fell and which drew Emperor Wu into a northern campaign he did not live to lead.
The Siege of Jiuquan (578) 578 minimal Taspar Khan's siege of the Northern Zhou frontier town of Jiuquan in the winter of 578, his second raid on the Zhou that year, in which the Göktürks plundered the district and withdrew.
The Marriage of Princess Qianjin (580) 579 Marriage of the Zhou princess Qianjin to Taspar Khan, agreed in 579 and completed in 580, by which the Zhou obtained the surrender of the Qi pretender Gao Shaoyi.
Göktürk Succession Crisis (581) 581 The assembly at Ötüken after Taspar's death, which overrode the dead khan's wish and chose Amrak. He abdicated for Ishbara, and the princes went to civil war.
Revolt of Turum 581 Göktürk civil war in which Turum, a kinsman of the khan, rose and was defeated at Ikar by the khan and three allied khans, as the khan reported to the emperor Maurice.
Battle of Zhoupan (582) 582 Ishbara Khan's three-day battle with a Sui force of 2,000 under Daxi Zhangru at Zhoupan in 582, in the great Göktürk invasion of the Sui, after which the Göktürks turned away.
Flight of the Tarniach and Kotzager 582 minimal Flight of the Tarniach and the Kotzager from the Göktürks to the Avar khan in Europe, which Theophylact sets at the time of Turum's revolt. The Avars gained ten thousand men by it.
The khan's letter to Maurice 582 Letter of a Göktürk khan to the emperor Maurice, preserved by Theophylact, in which he styled himself lord of seven races and listed his victories over the Avars, the Ogur and the Kolch.
Battle of Baidao (583) 583 Sui surprise attack under Shuang, the prince of Wei, on Ishbara Khan's army at Baidao in 583, which broke the Göktürk host and sent Ishbara north in flight.
Edict of Emperor Wen against the Göktürks (583) 583 Edict of the first Sui emperor ordering war on the Göktürks in 583, which described the khaganate as split among five chiefs and struck by drought, and opened the Sui offensive.
Embassy of Yu Qingze (584) 584 Sui embassy of Yu Qingze to Ishbara Khan in 584, in answer to Ishbara's letter, which brought the khan to receive the emperor's letter on his knees and to call himself the emperor's subject.
Submission of Ishbara (585) 585 Ishbara Khan's submission to the Sui in 585, under pressure from Tardush and Apa, which brought him Sui protection at Baidao and made the desert the frontier between the khan and the Sui.
Capture of Apa (587) 587 Bagha Khan's western campaign of 587 against Apa Khan under banners the Sui had sent him, in which Apa's men went over and Apa was taken alive. On Gao Jiong's advice the Sui emperor spared him.
Ishbara's Hunt (587) 587 Hunt of Ishbara Khan between Heng and Dai in the first month of 587, by leave of the Sui emperor. He killed eighteen deer in one day, and his royal tent burned on the way back.
The Succession of 587 587 Accession of Ishbara Khan's brother Bagha in 587 by Ishbara's will, after nephew and uncle had offered each other the throne five or six times.
Göktürk prisoners with the cross (591) 591 Göktürk captives from Bahram Chobin's army, sent by Khosrow II to the emperor Maurice in 591, who bore a cross on their foreheads, put there by their mothers against the plague.
Murder of Bahram Chobin 591 Killing of the Persian rebel general Bahram Chobin in exile after 591, contrived by Khosrow II. Most accounts place it at the court of a Göktürk khan, through the khan's wife.
Death of Princess Dayi 593 Murder of Princess Dayi, the Zhou princess Qianjin and wife of Tulan Khan, which the Sui demanded as the price of a bride for Yami. Yami brought it about, and Tulan killed her in his tent.
Smbat Bagratuni's war with the khan 597 Göktürk intervention against the Persian general Smbat Bagratuni in the east, which carried a Göktürk host across the Oxus as far as Rey and Isfahan before the khan recalled it.
Death of Tulan Khan 599 Killing of Tulan Khan by his own followers while a Sui army marched against him. Tardush proclaimed himself Bujia Khan, and the eastern realm fell into great disorder.
The Archery Match at the Wu'an Hall (599) 599 Archery match the Sui emperor Wen gave in the Wu'an Hall in 599, soon after he made Yami khan. Twelve archers shot in two sides; Yami joined the side of the envoy Zhangsun Sheng, and it won.
The Attack on Yami Khan (599) 599 Joint attack of Tulan Khan and Tardush on Yami, then Tuli Khan, below the Long Wall in 599. It drove Yami to the Sui court, and the Sui made him their client khan.
The Sui Campaign of 599 599 Sui offensive of 599 against Tulan Khan and Tardush under Gao Jiong and Yang Su, which the Chinese histories record as a rout of Tardush and which ended with the Sui raising Yami as Qimin Khan.
Battle of Mount Dajin (600) 600 Victory of the Sui general Shi Wansui over Tardush, then Bujia Khan, at Mount Dajin. The khan withdrew when he learned who led the Sui army, and the pursuit took thousands of heads.
Yang Su's Northern Campaign (601–602) 601 Sui campaign under Yang Su with Yami Khan against the tribes that had left him and the raiders of Sili Irkin. Yang Su recovered Yami's people and herds, and the raids south of the desert ceased.
Fall of Tardush (603) 603 Collapse of the rule of Tardush as Bujia Khan, when the Tiele and other tribes rose against him and went over to Yami Khan. Tardush fled to the Tuyuhun, and the khaganate stayed divided.
Tiele Revolt (605) 605 Rising of the Tiele tribes against Heshana, the western Göktürk khan, after he had their chiefs killed at a gathering. They made Geleng of the Qibi khan at Tanhan Mountain and beat Heshana repeatedly.
Sui Variety Shows for Yami Khan (606–610) 606 Spectacles staged by the Sui emperor Yangdi for Yami Khan, 606 to 610. Entertainers of the realm gathered at Luoyang in 606; in 610 eighteen thousand musicians played in one street.
Yangdi's Visit to Yami Khan (607) 607 Visit of the Sui emperor Yangdi to Yami Khan at Yulin and in his camp in 607. Yami asked to adopt Chinese dress and was refused; a Goguryeo envoy in his camp led to the Sui wars on Goguryeo.
Embassy of Cui Junsu (608) 608 Sui embassy of Cui Junsu to Heshana, the western Göktürk khan. Cui threatened the life of the khan's Chinese mother, and Heshana knelt to receive the emperor's letter and sent tribute.
Assembly at Mount Yanzhi (609) 609 Reception of the rulers of the Western Regions by the Sui emperor Yangdi at Mount Yanzhi in 609, prepared by Pei Ju. The king of Gaochang, the tudun shad of Yiwu and envoys of 27 states came.
Fall of Heshana Khan (611) 610 Overthrow of Heshana, the western Göktürk khan, by Shegui at the Sui's instigation. The emperor sent Shegui an arrow, Shegui drove Heshana east, and Heshana bowed to the emperor at the Linshuo palace.
Murder of Shishu Huxi 614 Ambush in which the Sui official Pei Ju lured Shishu Huxi, the trusted hu adviser of Shibi Khan, to a pretended market below Mayi and killed him. Shibi saw through it and stopped coming to court.
The siege of Yanmen, 615 615 Göktürk siege of a Chinese frontier town in 615, which enabled Shibi Khan to end the tributary obligations towards the Sui.
Göktürk Aid to Li Yuan (617) 617 Alliance of Shibi Khan with Li Yuan, the future founder of the Tang, in his rising of 617. Shibi sent him horses and riders under Kang Shaoli, and Göktürk troops joined the march on Chang'an.
Killing of Heshana Khan (619) 619 Killing of Heshana, the former khan of the western Göktürks, at Chang'an in 619. The Tang emperor Gaozu gave him up to Göktürk envoys who had demanded his death, and they killed him.
The Sui Court in Exile at Dingxiang (620) 620 Court of the Sui pretender Yang Zhengdao, set up by Chula Khan at Dingxiang in 620 for the Chinese in the Göktürk lands. Chula meant to win Bingzhou for it and died before he could march.
Raid on Yanmen (621) 621 Ilig Khan's attack on the Tang frontier commandery of Yanmen in 621, which Li Da'en drove off. Both courts held each other's envoys until Ilig asked for peace with a gift of fish glue.
The Göktürk Campaign of 622 622 Ilig Khan's war on the Tang in 622, in which his horsemen killed Li Da'en at Xincheng and then raided as far as Fenzhou. He withdrew in the autumn with more than 5,000 captives.
The Standoff at Binzhou (624) 624 Li Shimin's confrontation with Ilig Khan and Töles at Binzhou in 624, ended without a battle. By riding out to the Göktürk line he set uncle against nephew, and Töles swore brotherhood with him.
The Göktürk Campaign of 625 625 Ilig Khan's invasion of the Tang frontier in 625 with more than 100,000 men. He destroyed Zhang Jin's army at Taigu and captured Wen Yanbo, then asked for peace and withdrew.
Battle of Jingyang (626) 626 Victory of the Tang general Yuchi Jingde over Ilig Khan's army at Jingyang in 626, which took an Ashide irkin prisoner. It did not stop Ilig, who stood on the Wei two days later.
Meeting of Heraclius and Ziebel (627) 626 Meeting of the emperor Heraclius with Ziebel, commander of the Göktürk army of the north, before Tiflis about 627, at which Heraclius crowned him, called him his son and promised him his daughter.
The Wei bridge, 626 626 Eighteen days after Taizong took the throne, Ilig Khan stood on the Wei with an army in sight of Chang'an. The Tang bought him off, and the emperor spent the next three years preparing the answer.
Murder of Tong Yabgu (630) 627 Killing of Tong Yabgu, khan of the western Göktürks, by his paternal uncle, who made himself Moheduo Khan. The war of two khans that followed broke the western khaganate's hold on its subjects.
Revolt of the Tiele (627) 627 Rising of the Xueyantuo, the Uyghurs and the Bayirku against Ilig Khan in 627. They drove off his Yukuk Shad and beat Töles, whom Ilig then imprisoned, which turned his nephew against him.
Siege of Tiflis (627–629) 627 Two Göktürk sieges of Tiflis in the Caucasus campaign: the first, with Heraclius, broken off after the townspeople mocked the khan; the second, in 628 or 629, ending in the storming of the city.
The great snow of 627 627 Several feet of snow on level ground killed the herds of the eastern khaganate. What the Tang armies finished in 630 began with a winter the annals record in one sentence.
Xuanzang's visit to Tong Yabgu 627 Reception of the Chinese pilgrim Xuanzang by the khan of the western Göktürks near Suyab about 629, which gives the fullest surviving description of a Göktürk court.
Defection of Töles (628) 628 Break of Töles, Ilig Khan's nephew and lesser khan of the east, with his uncle in 628, and his crossing to the Tang at the end of 629. It cost Ilig his eastern wing as the Tang armies set out.
Taizong's Speech on the Signs of Ruin (628) 628 The Tang emperor Taizong's refusal in 628 to rebuild the Long Wall against the Göktürks. He named four signs of their coming ruin and promised his ministers to take the khaganate instead.
Battle of Lake Sevan (629–630) 629 Göktürk victory on the shore of Lake Sevan, where Čorpan Tarxan's vanguard drew a Persian army of 10,000 into an ambush and destroyed it, the last success of the northern army in the Caucasus.
Battle of the Iron Mountain (630) 630 Li Jing's attack on Ilig Khan's camp at the Iron Mountain in the second month of 630, made while Tang envoys were there to receive his surrender. It destroyed the eastern Göktürk khaganate.
Capture of Ilig Khan (630) 630 Seizure of the fleeing Ilig Khan in the camp of his kinsman Suni Shi in 630, and his arraignment before Taizong at Chang'an. Taizong named five crimes and spared him for the oath at the Wei.
Night Attack on Dingxiang (630) 630 Li Jing's surprise attack on Ilig Khan at Dingxiang in the first month of 630, which drove the khan to Qikou. His confidant Kang Sumi went over with the Sui empress Xiao and Yang Zhengdao.
Ransom of the Chinese from the Göktürks (631) 630 minimal Tang redemption with gold and silk of the Chinese who had fallen to the Göktürks in the Sui disorders. By the fifth month of 631 the officials counted 80,000 men and women returned.
Submission of Yiwu (630) 630 Surrender of the oasis town of Yiwu to the Tang after the fall of Ilig Khan in 630. Its lord, long a subject of the Göktürks, came to court and gave up his seven towns, which became a prefecture.
The Court Debate of 630 630 Debate at the Tang court in 630 on where to settle the surrendered eastern Göktürks. Wen Yanbo's plan to keep the tribes whole below the frontier won over Wei Zheng's call to send them north.
Ilig Khan's Dance at the Weiyang Palace (633) 633 Dance of the captive Ilig Khan at a feast of the retired Tang emperor Gaozu in the old Han palace of Weiyang, late in 633. Gaozu hailed Hu and Yue as one family; Ilig died weeks later.
Li Chengqian's Göktürk Camp 643 Camp of the Tang crown prince Li Chengqian: servants dressed as Göktürks, felt tents under five wolf-head standards, and a mock funeral of a khan with wailing, cut faces and riders circling him.
Banquet of the Wine Fountain (647) 647 Farewell banquet of the Tang emperor Taizong for the Uyghur and Tiele chiefs in 647, after which the chiefs asked for a road to his court. Wine rose from a hidden spring for thousands of guests.
Kirghiz embassy of 648 647 First visit of a Kirghiz chief to the Tang court, in 648. Shiboqu Azhan came in person, and Taizong made his land the Jiankun command and him its governor under the Yanran protectorate.
The Ten Steeds of 647 647 Gift of ten horses from the Kurykan to the Tang emperor Taizong in the eighth month of 647. Taizong gave each horse a name, and the Chinese histories keep all ten.
Battle of Balanjar (652) 652 minimal Fighting at the Khazar town of Balanjar in the North Caucasus, 652, which closed the first Arab–Khazar war. The Arab leader ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Rabīʿa died in this war.
Kapgan's Request for Farm Tools and Iron (698) 698 Kapgan Khan's demand to the Tang court in 698 for seed, farm tools and iron. After he seized an envoy, the court gave him grain, tools and households, and the Göktürks grew stronger.
Battle of Bolchu 710 The dawn attack on the Türgesh at Bolchu, about 711. Tonyukuk marched by night over the Altai and the Irtysh and struck against his khan's order.
Göktürk campaign against the Kirghiz (710) 710 Winter campaign of the Göktürks over the Kögmen against the Kirghiz, in 710 by the usual reckoning. Tonyukuk planned it, and the Kirghiz khan was killed, which broke the coalition against Kapgan.
The capture of Samarkand, 712 712 minimal Qutayba ibn Muslim took Samarkand by a ruse in 712. The treaty fixed two million dirhams, three thousand slaves and a yearly tribute. Qutayba broke it, kept the town and drove out its people.
The coup of 716 716 Kapgan Khan was killed by a straggler in a willow wood. Within days Kül Tegin had killed the Lesser Khan, Kapgan's sons and his court, and put his own elder brother on the throne.
Bilge Khan's Tent Banquet (725) 725 Feast in Bilge Khan's tent for the Tang envoy Yuan Zhen in 725, with Kül Tegin and Tonyukuk in the ring. Bilge asked why the Tang gave brides to Tibet, the Xi and the Khitan but not to him.
Horse Market at the Western Shouxiang City (727) 727 minimal Tang permission of 727 for a frontier market for Bilge Khan, who had handed over a Tibetan letter. Two Tang histories call the yearly silk a gift, a third calls it the price of horses.
Battle of Ardabil (730) 730 Khazar victory on the plain of Ardabil in 730 in the second Arab–Khazar war. Barjik, son of the khagan, defeated and killed the Arab governor al-Jarrah ibn Abdallah.
Campaign of Marwan (737) 737 Campaign of the Umayyad general Marwan ibn Muhammad through the Caucasus to the lower Volga in 737. The khagan fled, was caught and was forced to take Islam. He gave it up when the army left.
Conversion of the Khazars to Judaism 740 The adoption of Judaism by the Khazar khagan, the ruling house and the elite. Date, course and reach are disputed, from about 740 to after 861, and one view denies that it happened.

From 744 AD 16

The battle of the Talas, 751 751 A Tang army and an Abbasid army met on the Talas river. The Karluk contingent changed sides during the battle, the Tang force was destroyed, and Chinese power west of the Pamirs ended.
Plunder of Luoyang and the Silk Payment (757) 757 minimal Three days of Uyghur plunder in Luoyang in December 757. One Tang history says the Tang prince ended it with brocade and treasure, another that the city's elders paid 10,000 bolts of silk.
Uyghur victory over the Kirghiz (758) 758 Defeat of the Kirghiz by the Uyghurs, reported to the Tang in autumn 758 as 50,000 men broken. The Kirghiz could no longer reach China, and the Uyghurs gave their ruler a title without the word khan.
The Uyghur Demand for the Prince's Dance (762) 762 Demand of the Uyghur khan Bögü and his ministers that the Tang prince Li Kuo dance in homage before his tent at Shanzhou in 762. The prince's officers refused, and two were beaten to death.
Kabar Revolt 780 Secession and civil war among the Khazars, after which the Kabars left Khazaria and joined the Hungarians. Constantine VII is the one source. Its date lies between about 780 and 881.
Huaixin's campaign against the Kirghiz 795 minimal Victory of the Uyghur prince who became khan as Huaixin over the Kirghiz, told on the Karabalghasun stele. His arrow killed the Kirghiz khan. The stele is undated.
Rescue of Princess Taihe (840–843) 840 The Kirghiz took the Tang princess Taihe in 840 and sent her home. Ögä, the Uyghur khan, killed the escort and carried her south, and in 843 the general Shi Xiong recovered her from his camp.
The fall of Ordu-Balık, 840 840 Kirghiz capture of the Uyghur capital on the Orkhon, 840. The Kirghiz killed the khan and burned the city. The steppe centre that one khaganate after another had held since 552 was abandoned.
Kirghiz Embassies to the Tang (842–848) 842 Four Kirghiz embassies to the Tang court, 842 to 844, and the investiture of the Kirghiz khan in 847. The Tang offered kinship and a Chinese title and refused the Turkic title the Kirghiz asked for.
Tang investiture of the Kirghiz (847) 845 Investiture of the Kirghiz khan by the emperor Xuanzong in 847, after a court debate that had stopped his predecessor's plan. The title was Chinese, and the reference to kinship was gone.
Kirghiz campaign against the Shiwei (848) 848 Attack of the Kirghiz minister Apa on the Shiwei in spring 848, with a force said to number 70,000. He beat them and took the Uyghur remnants among them back north of the desert.
Kirghiz embassies of the Xiantong era (860–873) 860 minimal Three Kirghiz embassies to the Tang court under the emperor Yizong, and an investiture of a Kirghiz ruler in 867. After them the Chinese histories lost the record.
Mission of Constantine to the Khazars (860–861) 860 Byzantine embassy under Constantine, later called Cyril, to the Khazar capital on the lower Volga in the early spring of 861. It took the form of a religious debate at the khagan's court.
Kirghiz and Tibetan troops at Hedong (890) 890 minimal Attack of 890 on the Shatuo leader Li Keyong by a Tang governor and a Tuyuhun chief, with Kirghiz and Tibetan troops among the allies. Li Keyong beat the attackers.
Abaoji's campaign to the Orkhon (924) 924 Campaign of the Khitan ruler Abaoji to the Orkhon in 924. It gave 924 its place as the conventional end of Kirghiz power on the steppe, though no report puts the Kirghiz in it.
Fall of the Khazar Khaganate (about 965–969) 965 End of the Khazar state as a power. In 965 the Rus of Kiev, with Oghuz allies, overran Atil and probably Sarkel. The end of the khaganate is usually set in 969, and the causes are debated.

Without a date 1

Abrui and Shir-i Kishvar Founding tradition of the Bukhara oasis: the tyrant Abrui, the flight of the dihqans and merchants to Talas, and Shir-i Kishvar, a Turkish lord's son, who killed him and built the city.

Image credits

Battle of Jingyang (626): Page of the Xin Tang Shu, chapter 215, naming the battle at Jingyang (涇陽) and the capture of the irkin Wumo Chur, Japanese edition of 1750. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Battle of the Catalaunian Plains: Topographic map of the Châlons region in Champagne, sheet 214 of Reymann's Special-Karte, 1848, with the site marked Attila's Camp near La Cheppe (a modern map of the region). Reymann's Special-Karte, Verlag C. Flemming, Glogau; scan by the Deutsche Fotothek, SLUB Dresden, CC BY-SA 4.0 ↗
Capture of Ilig Khan (630): Page of the Xin Tang Shu, chapter 215, naming the capture of Ilig Khan and his arraignment at the Shuntian tower (頡利, 順天樓), Japanese edition of 1750. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Death of Attila: Gold shoe buckle with garnets, 400–450, which the museum attributes to Hunnic or Frankish workshops, Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, CC0 ↗
Embassy of Valentinos (576): Byzantine gold girdle with coins and medallions, about 583, Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, CC0 ↗
Maniakh's embassy to Constantinople, 568: Sogdian silver footed cup, 6th century, Metropolitan Museum of Art. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, CC0 ↗
Meeting of Heraclius and Ziebel (627): Gold solidus of Heraclius and his son Heraclius Constantine, about 616–625, Cleveland Museum of Art. Cleveland Museum of Art, CC0 ↗
Proclamation of Bumin Khan (552): Page of the Sui Shu, chapter 84, naming Illig Khan (伊利可汗), Japanese edition of 1844. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Siege of Tiflis (627–629): The town and fortress of Tiflis, photochrom print of about 1890–1900 (a modern view of the site). Detroit Publishing Company, Public domain ↗
The battle of the Talas, 751: The ruined citadel of Aulie-Ata, the modern Taraz on the Talas, photograph from the Turkestan Album, 1865–1872 (a modern view of the site). Turkestan Album, Library of Congress (photographer not recorded), Public domain ↗
The capture of Samarkand, 712: The mound of Afrasiab, the ruined citadel of old Samarkand, photograph from the Turkestan Album, 1871–1872. N. V. Bogaevsky, Public domain ↗
The embassy of Zemarchos, 569: Gold solidus of Justin II, minted 565–578, Cleveland Museum of Art. Cleveland Museum of Art, CC0 ↗
The fall of Ordu-Balık, 840: General view of the ruined fortress of Khara-Balgasun, the Uyghur capital Ordu-Baliq, photographed by the Finnish expedition of 1890 (<i>Inscriptions de l’Orkhon</i>, Helsingfors 1892). Finnish expedition of 1890, Public domain ↗
The Wei bridge, 626: Page of the Xin Tang Shu, chapter 215, naming the oath sworn with Ilig on the Bian bridge over the Wei (便橋), Japanese edition of 1750. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Xuanzang's visit to Tong Yabgu: Page of Xuanzang's Record of the Western Regions describing the town of Suye (素葉水城), Suyab, Southern Song print. National Diet Library, Japan, Public domain ↗
Battle of Bukhara: Around 560 Istemi advances through Chach into Sogdiana and destroys the Hephthalites in the battle of Bukhara, while Khosrow I takes their lands south of the Oxus as far as Balkh. The Oxus becomes the frontier between the Göktürks and Persia. Modern map; Istemi's route is drawn. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Battle of Mount Mulai (553): 553: Issik breaks the Rouran of Dengshuzi at Mount Mulai; at the end of the year the Northern Qi pursue the Göktürks to Shuozhou. In the west Istemi sets out from the Altai: the start of his great campaign. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the site of Mount Mulai is disputed. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Defeat of the Tiele, 546: 546: the Tiele move against the Rouran; Bumin intercepts them on the march and defeats them, and more than fifty thousand Tiele tents submit to him. The Ashina, still subjects of the Rouran, hold the Altai south towards Turfan. Modern map; the routes and the place of the battle are drawn. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Flight of the Avars (557): 557: The Northern Zhou take the place of the Western Wei, and the Chen take the throne of the Liang. In the west the Avars flee before the Göktürks and reach the Alans north of the Caucasus. Their road is not recorded. Modern map. The road of the Avars is a modern reconstruction. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Göktürk Succession Crisis (581): The Göktürk Khaganate in 581, the year of Taspar's death, still undivided from the Black Sea to the Khitan, with the court at Ötüken; beside it the Sui, whose rule began that year, the Chen, Sasanian Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire. Between the steppe and China stand the wall of the Northern Qi (556) and a frontier zone held by neither side. Modern map; the frontiers are approximate. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Göktürk–Wei Campaign against Tuyuhun (556): 556: Mukan Khan comes to Liangzhou and marches with the Western Wei general Shi Ning to the Qinghai lake. Mukan takes Hezhen on the northern road, Shi Ning takes Shudun. The wall of the Qi, built in 555, guards the northern frontier of the Northern Qi. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the year of the campaign, 555 or 556, is disputed. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Mayi ambush: 133 BC: The Han hide three hundred thousand men around the frontier town of Mayi and offer the town to the chanyu Junchen. He comes over the border with a hundred thousand horse, sees the cattle grazing unattended a hundred li short of the town, learns of the ambush from a captured officer and turns back. The heqin settlement ends, and sixty years of open war begin. Modern map; the road of the chanyu is drawn, and the borders in the steppe are approximate. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Murder of Tong Yabgu (630): 628: In the west Tong Yabgu is murdered by his uncle, and two khans fight over the realm; Yinan leads the Xueyantuo east from the Altai. In the east the Tiele fall away from Ilig Khan, and Töles submits to the Tang. In the Caucasus Jebu Xak'an storms Tiflis in 628 or 629. Modern map; the borders in the steppe are approximate. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Taspar's Appointment of the Lesser Khans (572): 572: Taspar succeeds Mukan and sets two lesser khans under him: his nephew Ishbara as Erfu Khan over the east, and Börü Khan, a son of Rudan Khan, in the west. The map gives their names only. Modern map; the borders of the khaganate are approximate. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
The Flight of the Ashina (439): 439: The Northern Wei march on Guzang, and the Northern Liang capitulate. The Ashina flee with five hundred families to the Rouran. The Rouran hold the steppe north of the Gobi; south of the Wei lie the Liu Song. Modern map; the road of the Wei is drawn, and the borders in the steppe are approximate. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
The Göktürk–Byzantine alliance: Gold solidus of Justin II, emperor in Constantinople from 565 to 578, in whose fourth year the envoys of Istemi swore the alliance. The Cleveland Museum of Art, 2004.151.a, CC0.
The Qingmen Executions (555): 555: The Qi emperor leaves his baggage at Baidao and breaks the Rouran at Huaishuo and at Woye with 5,000 light horse. He takes more than 20,000 people. At Chang'an the Western Wei hand Dengshuzi and some 3,000 Rouran to Mukan's envoys, who kill them outside the Qingmen gate. In the west Istemi reaches Lake Balkhash, by one reckoning. Modern map. The roads are drawn. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
Western Wei embassy of 545: 545: Yuwen Tai, chancellor of the Western Wei, sends An Nuopantuo, a Sogdian of Jiuquan, to the Göktürks in the Altai, who are still subjects of the Rouran. It is the first embassy of a Chinese state to the Ashina. Modern map; the road is drawn, the source names no route. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

Battles & Events

Up to 100 AD 7

100–552 AD 19

553–743 AD 99

From 744 AD 16

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