Turkic Atlas

Authority on Turkic History

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Images and maps

Media

Every image that stands in an article or on a page of the atlas is gathered here. The first column holds photographs and historical images: wall paintings, stelae, coins, finds and landscapes. The maps stand first, on their own. The second column holds modern depictions: illustrations, reconstructions and paintings. Each card names the article in which the image stands, and a click shows it large, with its caption.

340 images: 68 maps, 188 photographs and historical images, 84 modern depictions.

Maps

Maps of the steppe empires and their neighbours, each with its time slice. A map shows what the sources and the scholarship allow; frontiers and zones are approximate where the caption says so.

  • c. 215 BCc. 215 BC: Qin takes the Ordos

    Map of East Asia around 215 BC: Qin with the Ordos taken by Meng Tian, the Xiongnu under Duman north of the Yellow River, the Donghu in the east and the Yuezhi between Dunhuang and the Qilian mountains, with a second reading in the Tian Shan © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    c. 215 BC: The First Emperor of Qin sends Meng Tian north. He takes the Ordos inside the great bend of the Yellow River and makes the river the frontier. The Xiongnu chanyu Duman withdraws to the north; how far, the source does not say. The Donghu hold the east, the Yuezhi the land between Dunhuang and the Qilian mountains; a second reading places them in the Tian Shan. Modern map; the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year -215, Duman (Touman), Xiongnu

  • 209–200 BC209–200 BC: Bagatur unites the steppe

    Map of East Asia from 209 to 200 BC: the Xiongnu under Bagatur from the Ordos to Lake Baikal, the Wuhuan, Dingling and Gekun as their subjects, the campaigns against the Donghu, the Yuezhi and the northern peoples, the Han in China and the siege of Baideng © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    209–200 BC: Bagatur (Modu Chanyu) kills his father Duman and becomes chanyu. He destroys the king of the Donghu, drives back the Yuezhi, retakes the land Meng Tian had seized as far as Chaona and Fushi, and subjects the Dingling, the Gekun and the other peoples of the north; the Wuhuan pay him tribute. In 200 BC he surrounds the Han emperor Gaozu at Baideng near Pingcheng. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year -209, Bagatur (Modu Chanyu), The Xiongnu–Han Wars

  • 176–174 BC176–174 BC: The Xiongnu at their height

    Map of East Asia from 176 to 174 BC: the Xiongnu at their greatest extent from the Tarim to the land of the Donghu, the oasis states, Jushi, the Hujie, Dingling, Gekun and Wuhuan as their subjects, the Wise King of the Right against the Yuezhi and the Yuezhi moving west to the Ili, with the Han and Gojoseon © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    176–174 BC: In a letter of 176 BC Bagatur (Modu Chanyu) tells the Han court that the Wise King of the Right has destroyed the Yuezhi, and that Loulan, the Wusun, the Hujie and twenty-six states around them have all become Xiongnu. The Yuezhi move west to the Ili. In 174 BC Bagatur dies and his son Laoshang succeeds him. Modern map; no source describes the northern edge of the realm, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year -177, Bagatur (Modu Chanyu), History of the Turkic peoples

  • 133 BC133 BC: The Mayi ambush

    Map of East Asia in 133 BC: the Xiongnu under Junchen with the Ordos and the Hexi corridor, their subjects from the Tarim to the Wuhuan, the Yuezhi on the Ili, the Han, and the march of the chanyu towards Mayi, where three hundred thousand Han lie in ambush, and his withdrawal © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    133 BC: The Han hide three hundred thousand men around the frontier town of Mayi and offer the town to the chanyu Junchen. He comes over the border with a hundred thousand horse, sees the cattle grazing unattended a hundred li short of the town, learns of the ambush from a captured officer and turns back. The heqin settlement ends, and sixty years of open war begin. Modern map; the road of the chanyu is drawn, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year -133, Mayi ambush

  • c. 100 BCc. 100 BC: The Xiongnu north of the Gobi

    Map of East Asia around 100 BC: the Xiongnu north of the Gobi with the Tarim oasis states, Jushi, the Hujie, Dingling and Gekun as their subjects, the Han with the Ordos and the Hexi corridor, the Wuhuan subject to the Han, the Wusun and the Da Yuezhi, and the campaigns of 119 BC © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    c. 100 BC: After the campaigns of Wei Qing and Huo Qubing in 119 BC there is no royal court of the Xiongnu south of the Gobi. The Han hold the Ordos and the Hexi corridor from Wuwei to Dunhuang, and the Wuhuan watch the Xiongnu for them; by 105 BC the chanyu has moved further north-west. The oasis states of the Tarim and the peoples of the north are still subject to the Xiongnu. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year -100, Xiongnu, The Xiongnu–Han Wars

  • 8989: Dou Xian’s campaign against the Northern Xiongnu

    Map of Dou Xian’s campaign in 89: the Northern Xiongnu in the Mongolian steppe, the Southern Xiongnu subject to the Eastern Han, the march from the Jilu pass to the battle at Mount Jiluo in the Altai and the Yanran inscription, with the Xianbei in the east and the Wusun, the oases of the Tarim and the Kushans in the west © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    89: Dou Xian marches out from the Jilu pass with the Southern Xiongnu and defeats the northern chanyu at Mount Jiluo in the Altai; an inscription on Mount Yanran records the victory. The Southern Xiongnu are subject to the Han, and the Xianbei hold the east. Modern map; the road is drawn, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 89, Xiongnu, Han campaigns against the Northern Xiongnu, The Xiongnu–Han Wars

  • c. 155c. 155: The Xianbei in the old Xiongnu land

    Map of the Xianbei about 155: the realm of Tanshihuai over the Mongolian steppe, the Southern Xiongnu inside the frontier of the Eastern Han, the protectorate of the Western Regions, the Wusun and the Kushans, and Northern Xiongnu north-west of Kangju as a second reading © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    c. 155: Under Tanshihuai the Xianbei hold the old land of the Xiongnu in the Mongolian steppe. The Southern Xiongnu live inside the Han frontier, and the Han govern the oases of the west through the protectorate of the Western Regions. A second reading places Northern Xiongnu north-west of Kangju. Modern map; the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 155, Tanshihuai

  • 395–396395–396: The Hunnic raid through the Caucasus

    Map of the Hunnic raid of 395–396: the Huns north of the Caucasus, the main raid over the Darial pass to Melitene, Antioch and Edessa, the raid of Basich and Kursich down the Tigris to Ctesiphon and back through Derbent, and the find area of the runic fragments in Syria © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    395–396: The Huns cross the Caucasus and raid Armenia, Melitene, Antioch and Edessa. Basich and Kursich ride down the Tigris to Ctesiphon and return through the Caspian Gates. The date of their raid is disputed. The find area of the runic fragments in Syria is shaded. Modern map. The roads are drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 395, Hunnic invasion of 395

  • c. 402c. 402: Shelun and the Northern Wei

    Map of East Asia about 402: the Rouran from Karashahr to Goguryeo, Shelun's raid on the Northern Wei, and in China the Wei, the Later Qin, the Liang states, the Yan states and the Eastern Jin, with the Tuyuhun, the Tarim oasis states, the Wusun and the Kidarites © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    c. 402: Shelun leads the Rouran, whose land reaches from Karashahr to Goguryeo, and raids the frontier of the Northern Wei. In the south the Wei, the Later Qin, the Liang states, the Yan states and the Eastern Jin divide China. Modern map; the borders in the steppe and some borders in China are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 402, Shelun Khan, Rouran Khaganate, History of the Turkic peoples

  • 439439: The Wei take the Northern Liang

    Map of East Asia in 439: the Rouran in the steppe, the Northern Wei with the Northern Liang they took in 439, the march of the Wei from Pingcheng to Guzang, the flight of the Ashina to the Rouran, and the Liu Song in the south © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    439: The Northern Wei march on Guzang, and the Northern Liang capitulate. The Ashina flee with five hundred families to the Rouran. The Rouran hold the steppe north of the Gobi; south of the Wei lie the Liu Song. Modern map; the road of the Wei is drawn, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 439, Rouran Khaganate, The Flight of the Ashina (439)

  • 450450: The Pontic steppe

    Map of the Pontic steppe around 450: the realm of Attila from the Danube to the Volga, the Akatziri in two proposed places, the Alans north of the Caucasus, and the Eastern Roman Empire and Sasanian Persia as neighbours © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    c. 450: The realm of Attila reaches from the Danube into the steppe. The Akatziri stand in two proposed places, north-west of the Black Sea and by the Sea of Azov. Modern map. No source records the frontier.

    Map Appears in: Year 450, Akatziri

  • 453453: The Hunnic Empire at Attila’s death

    Map of Europe at Attila's death in 453: the Hunnic Empire from the Rhine to the Caspian Sea with the Gepids as subjects, the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, the Visigoths, Franks and Burgundians, Sasanian Persia, and the routes of Attila's campaigns in Gaul in 451 and in Italy in 452 © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    453: At Attila's death the Hunnic Empire reaches from the Rhine to the Caspian Sea, and the Gepids and other peoples are subject to the Huns. Thin lines mark Attila's campaigns in Gaul in 451 and in Italy in 452. Modern map; the borders of the realm are approximate, and the site of the Catalaunian Fields is disputed.

    Map Appears in: Year 453, Attila, History of the Turkic peoples

  • c. 460c. 460: The Ashina in the Altai

    Map of East Asia about 460: the Rouran in the steppe with their hatched reach west to Lake Balkhash, the Ashina as a small subject territory on the southern slope of the Altai, the road of the Ashina from Gaochang, the march of the Rouran against the Tiele, the Northern Wei and the Liu Song in China © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    About 460: The Ashina, five hundred families, settle on the southern slope of the Altai as subjects of the Rouran. In the west the Rouran subject the Tiele; in 460 they also make Kan Bozhou king of Gaochang. South of the Gobi lie the Northern Wei and the Liu Song. Modern map; the road of the Ashina is one reconstruction, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 460, Ashina

  • 463463: The chain of expulsions

    Map of the chain of expulsions around 463: the Abares pressing the Sabirs, the Sabirs pressing the Saragurs, Ogurs and Onogurs west, the defeat of the Akatziri, the embassy of the Saragurs to Constantinople and their later raid through the Caucasus, with an inset of the Rouran © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    c. 463: The Abares drive out the Sabirs, and the Sabirs drive the Saragurs, Ogurs and Onogurs west. The Saragurs defeat the Akatziri and send an embassy to Constantinople. Later they raid through the Caucasus. Modern map. The arrows are a reconstruction.

    Map Appears in: Year 463, Saragurs

  • 466–469466–469: The end of Attila's sons

    Map of the years 466–469: the Huns after the Nedao on the lower Danube, Dengizich's march against Bassiana, Ernak in two proposed places at the mouth of the Tisza and in the Dobruja, Emnetzur and Ultzindur on the Danube, and the death of Dengizich in 469 © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    466–469: Dengizich marches against Bassiana. Ernak stands in two proposed places, at the mouth of the Tisza and in the Dobruja. Emnetzur and Ultzindur hold towns on the Danube. Dengizich falls in 469, and his head is shown in Constantinople. Modern map. The place of his death is not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 466, Dengizich

  • 516516: Chounu crushes the Gaoche

    Map of East Asia in 516: the Rouran under Chounu, his campaign west against the Gaoche, the Ashina in the Altai as subjects of the Rouran, the Northern Wei and the Liang in China, the Tuyuhun, the Tarim oasis states and the Hephthalites © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    516: The Rouran khan Chounu marches west, defeats the Gaoche and takes and kills their king Mi'etu. The Ashina in the Altai are subject to the Rouran. Modern map; the road is drawn, the site of the battle is not recorded, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 516, Chounu Khan, Rouran Khaganate

  • 520520: Anagui flees to the Wei

    Map of East Asia in 520: the Rouran in civil war, Anagui's flight to the Northern Wei at Luoyang, the independent Gaoche, the Ashina in the Altai, the Northern Wei and the Liang, the Tuyuhun and the Tarim oasis states © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    520: Chounu is killed, and civil war divides the Rouran. Anagui is driven out and flees to the Northern Wei at Luoyang. The Gaoche remain independent. Modern map; the road is drawn, and the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 520, Anagui

  • 523–528523–528: The uprisings of the Northern Wei

    Map of northern China, 523 to 528: the revolt of the Six Garrisons along the northern frontier of the Northern Wei from Woye to Yuyi, the risings in Guanzhong around Chang'an and in Hebei, Anagui's march with the Rouran from Wuchuan against Woye in 525, and Erzhu Rong against Ge Rong at Ye in 528 © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    523–528: The garrisons on the northern frontier of the Northern Wei rise under Poliuhan Baling and beat the Wei at Wuyuan and Baidao in 524. In 525 the Rouran khan Anagui breaks the rising for the Wei. The war moves into Guanzhong and Hebei, until Erzhu Rong defeats Ge Rong at Ye in 528. Modern map; the shaded areas show where the risings ran, not frontiers.

    Map Appears in: Year 523, Rouran Khaganate, Revolt of the Six Garrisons

  • c. 542Asia around 542: Bumin becomes yabgu of the Ashina

    Map of Asia around 542: the Rouran Khaganate across the eastern steppe, with the Ashina in the Altai and the Tiele from Dzungaria to the Caspian as its subjects, beside the Western and Eastern Wei, the Liang, the Tuyuhun, the Tarim Basin, the Hephthalites, the Nezak Huns, Sasanian Persia, the Eastern Roman Empire and Goguryeo © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    Asia around 542, the year Bumin became yabgu of the Ashina: the Ashina in the Altai and the Tiele as subjects of the Rouran, who rule the eastern steppe, beside the Western and Eastern Wei, the Liang, the Tuyuhun, the Hephthalites, Sasanian Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire. Modern map; the frontiers are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 542, Bumin Khan, First Göktürk Khaganate, Ashina

  • 545545: The Western Wei embassy to the Göktürks

    Map of Asia in 545: the embassy of the Western Wei under An Nuopantuo from Jiuquan to the Ashina in the Altai, subjects of the Rouran, who rule the eastern steppe with the Tiele as further subjects, beside the Western and Eastern Wei, the Liang, the Tuyuhun, the Hephthalites, Sasanian Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    545: Yuwen Tai, chancellor of the Western Wei, sends An Nuopantuo, a Sogdian of Jiuquan, to the Göktürks in the Altai, who are still subjects of the Rouran. It is the first embassy of a Chinese state to the Ashina. Modern map; the road is drawn, the source names no route.

    Map Appears in: Year 545, Anagui, Bumin Khan, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Rouran Domination of the Turkic Peoples, Western Wei embassy of 545

  • 546546: Bumin defeats the Tiele

    Map of the defeat of the Tiele in 546: the Tiele move from Dzungaria against the Rouran, Bumin and the Ashina strike them from the Altai, and the beaten Tiele pass into the Ashina territory, which reaches south towards Turfan, within the Rouran Khaganate © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    546: the Tiele move against the Rouran; Bumin intercepts them on the march and defeats them, and more than fifty thousand Tiele tents submit to him. The Ashina, still subjects of the Rouran, hold the Altai south towards Turfan. Modern map; the routes and the place of the battle are drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 546, Defeat of the Tiele, 546

  • 550550: The Sea of Azov

    Map of the Sea of Azov around 550: the Kutrigurs west and the Utigurs east of the Don, the Sabirs and Onogurs north of the Caucasus, Bosporos and Cherson in the Crimea, the Kutrigur raids of 551 and 558–559, and the arrival of the Avars in 557 © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    c. 550: The Kutrigurs live west and the Utigurs east of the Don and the Sea of Azov, the Sabirs and the Onogurs north of the Caucasus. The Kutrigurs raid in 551 and, under Zabergan, reach Constantinople in 558–559. The Avars arrive in 557. Modern map. The roads are drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 550, Kutrigurs

  • 551–552551–552: The Göktürk–Rouran war

    Map of the Göktürk–Rouran war of 551 and 552: from the Altai the Ashina under Bumin strike a Rouran army in Dzungaria and drive east across the Gobi to Huaihuang, where Anagui kills himself; the Rouran rule the eastern steppe, the Tiele are their subjects in the west © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    551–552: the Göktürks under Bumin rise against the Rouran. In January 552 they beat a Rouran army in Dzungaria, then crush the main Rouran army north of Huaihuang, and Anagui kills himself. Modern map; the routes and the place of the battle in Dzungaria are drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 551, Rouran Khaganate, The Göktürk–Rouran Wars, History of the Turkic peoples

  • 552552: The First Göktürk Khaganate

    Map of Asia in 552: the First Göktürk Khaganate across the eastern steppe from the Altai to the Khingan, south of Lake Baikal, the Tiele in the west as its subjects, the remnant of the Rouran in the east, beside the Western Wei, the Northern Qi, the Liang, the Tuyuhun, the Hephthalites and Persia © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    552: after the victory over the Rouran, Bumin takes the title of khan and founds the First Göktürk Khaganate in their lands. The Tiele are his subjects, and the remnant of the Rouran holds out in the east. Modern map.

    Map Appears in: Year 552, Bumin Khan, First Göktürk Khaganate, Northern Qi, Proclamation of Bumin Khan (552)

  • 553553: The last Rouran and Istemi’s march west

    Map of Asia in 553: the Göktürk Khaganate with the Tiele as subjects, the battle at Mount Mulai against the last Rouran, the march of the Qi to Shuozhou, and Istemi's first advances west from the Altai, with the Western Wei, the Northern Qi, the Hephthalites and Sasanian Persia © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    553: Issik breaks the Rouran of Dengshuzi at Mount Mulai; at the end of the year the Northern Qi pursue the Göktürks to Shuozhou. In the west Istemi sets out from the Altai: the start of his great campaign. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the site of Mount Mulai is disputed.

    Map Appears in: Year 553, Rouran Khaganate, Battle of Mount Mulai (553)

  • 554554: Anluochen’s revolt and the fall of Jiangling

    Map of Asia in 554: the Göktürk Khaganate with the Tiele as subjects, the Rouran remnant between the Göktürks and the Northern Qi, the Qi pursuit to the Huanggua hill, the fall of Jiangling to the Western Wei, and Istemi's advance in the west © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    554: Anluochen rises against the Northern Qi. The Rouran raid Sizhou, and the Qi emperor pursues them from Jinyang to the Huanggua hill. He takes more than 30,000 of their people. In the south the Western Wei take Jiangling and set Xiao Cha over a Liang dependent on them. Modern map. The roads are drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 554, Anluochen

  • 555555: The end of the Rouran

    Map of Asia in 555: the Göktürk Khaganate reaching Lake Balkhash, the Qi campaign to Huaishuo and Woye against the last Rouran, the killing of the Rouran at the Qingmen gate of Chang'an, and the frontier zone between the Göktürks and China © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    555: The Qi emperor leaves his baggage at Baidao and breaks the Rouran at Huaishuo and at Woye with 5,000 light horse. He takes more than 20,000 people. At Chang'an the Western Wei hand Dengshuzi and some 3,000 Rouran to Mukan's envoys, who kill them outside the Qingmen gate. In the west Istemi reaches Lake Balkhash, by one reckoning. Modern map. The roads are drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 555, Rouran Khaganate, The Qingmen Executions (555)

  • 556556: The Göktürks and the Western Wei against the Tuyuhun

    Map of the campaign against the Tuyuhun in 556: Mukan's march from the steppe by Liangzhou to the Qinghai lake and on the northern road against Hezhen, Shi Ning's march against Shudun, the Göktürk Khaganate, the Western Wei, the Northern Qi with their wall and the Liang © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    556: Mukan Khan comes to Liangzhou and marches with the Western Wei general Shi Ning to the Qinghai lake. Mukan takes Hezhen on the northern road, Shi Ning takes Shudun. The wall of the Qi, built in 555, guards the northern frontier of the Northern Qi. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the year of the campaign, 555 or 556, is disputed.

    Map Appears in: Year 556, Göktürk–Wei Campaign against Tuyuhun (556)

  • 557557: The Northern Zhou and the flight of the Avars

    Map of Asia in 557: the Göktürk Khaganate from Lake Balkhash to the land of the Khitan, the Tiele as subjects, the Northern Zhou, the Northern Qi and the Chen, and the flight of the Avars west to the Alans north of the Caucasus © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    557: The Northern Zhou take the place of the Western Wei, and the Chen take the throne of the Liang. In the west the Avars flee before the Göktürks and reach the Alans north of the Caucasus. Their road is not recorded. Modern map. The road of the Avars is a modern reconstruction.

    Map Appears in: Year 557, Northern Zhou, Flight of the Avars (557)

  • 558558: The Avars reach Constantinople

    Map of Asia in 558: the road of the first Avar embassy through the Alans and Lazica to Constantinople, the Avar attacks on the Onogurs and the Sabirs, and the Göktürk Khaganate from Lake Balkhash to the land of the Khitan © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    558: The first embassy of the Avars comes through the Alans and Lazica to Constantinople. The Avars then break the Onogurs and destroy the Sabirs. Modern map. The road of the embassy is drawn, and the places of the battles are not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 558, Flight of the Avars (557), Avars, Sabirs

  • c. 560c. 560: The Göktürks destroy the Hephthalites

    Map of Asia around 560: the Göktürk Khaganate from Manchuria to the Caspian, Istemi advancing through Chach to the battle of Bukhara, Khosrow I advancing from the south to Balkh, beside Sasanian Persia, the Northern Zhou, the Northern Qi and the Chen © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    Around 560 Istemi advances through Chach into Sogdiana and destroys the Hephthalites in the battle of Bukhara, while Khosrow I takes their lands south of the Oxus as far as Balkh. The Oxus becomes the frontier between the Göktürks and Persia. Modern map; Istemi's route is drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 560, Istemi, Mukan Khan, First Göktürk Khaganate, Northern Zhou, Battle of Bukhara, Hephthalites, History of the Turkic peoples

  • c. 571c. 571: The Göktürk embassy to Constantinople

    Map of the return of Zemarchos with the Göktürk embassy under Tagma Tarkhan, 569 to 571: from Talas north of the Aral Sea across the Emba, the Ural and the Volga, through the lands of the Alans and over the Caucasus to the Black Sea and Constantinople © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    569–571: Zemarchos returns from Istemi with a Göktürk embassy under Tagma Tarkhan, from Talas across the steppe north of the Caspian, through the lands of the Ugurs and the Alans and over the Dareine road to the Black Sea, and reaches Constantinople late in 571. Modern map; the stations are Menander's, the road between them is drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 571, The embassy of Zemarchos, 569

  • 572572: Taspar and the lesser khans

    Map of Asia in 572: the Göktürk Khaganate under Taspar Khan, with Ishbara as Erfu Khan in the east and Börü Khan in the west, the Tarim Basin as subject, the Northern Zhou, the Northern Qi and the Chen in China, and Sasanian Persia © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    572: Taspar succeeds Mukan and sets two lesser khans under him: his nephew Ishbara as Erfu Khan over the east, and Börü Khan, a son of Rudan Khan, in the west. The map gives their names only. Modern map; the borders of the khaganate are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 572, Taspar's Appointment of the Lesser Khans (572)

  • 576576: The Pontic steppe under Göktürk rule

    Map of the Pontic steppe in 576: the Göktürk Khaganate from the Sea of Azov to the Aral Sea with Bosporos, the Utigurs and the Alans, and the Avars and their sphere west of the Don © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    c. 576: The Göktürks hold the steppe from the Sea of Azov eastward and take Bosporos. The Utigurs and the Alans stand under them. West of the Don lie the Avars and their sphere. Modern map. The western limits are readings.

    Map Appears in: Year 576, Turkic Tribes in Europe

  • c. 576The First Göktürk Khaganate, c. 576

    Map of the First Göktürk Khaganate around 576: the Göktürk realm across the steppe from the Black Sea, the Utigurs and the Alans to the Khitan, with the court at Ötüken, the Tarim oasis states and the Hephthalite principalities as tributaries, the Kirghiz, Tiele, Shiwei and Mohe at its northern and eastern edges, and beside it the Eastern Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Tuyuhun, the Northern Zhou, the Northern Qi, the Chen and Goguryeo, and between the steppe and China the wall of the Northern Qi and a hatched frontier zone © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    The First Göktürk Khaganate around 576, the year of Istemi's death: the realm from the Black Sea to the Khitan, with the Tarim oasis states and the Hephthalite principalities as tributaries, beside the Eastern Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Northern Zhou, the Northern Qi and the Chen. Between the steppe and China stand the wall of the Northern Qi (556) and a frontier zone held by neither side. Modern map; the western frontier is inferred and the frontiers are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 576

  • 581The division of the khaganate, AD 581

    Map of Asia in 581: the undivided Göktürk Khaganate from the Black Sea to the Khitan with the court at Ötüken, the Tarim oasis states and the Hephthalite principalities as tributaries, beside the Eastern Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Sui, the Chen, the Tuyuhun and Goguryeo, and between the steppe and China the wall of the Northern Qi and a hatched frontier zone © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    The Göktürk Khaganate in 581, the year of Taspar's death, still undivided from the Black Sea to the Khitan, with the court at Ötüken; beside it the Sui, whose rule began that year, the Chen, Sasanian Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire. Between the steppe and China stand the wall of the Northern Qi (556) and a frontier zone held by neither side. Modern map; the frontiers are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 581, Taspar Khan, Göktürk Succession Crisis (581)

  • 582–583582–583: Ishbara's campaigns against the Sui

    Map of northern China and the eastern steppe, 582 to 583: the Göktürk Khaganate from the Tarim to the Khingan, three raids across the Long Wall in 582 towards Wuwei, Tianshui and Yan'an, the battle of Zhoupan, Ishbara's march from Ötüken to Baidao in 583, his defeat and withdrawal, and Apa's flight west © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    582–583: In 582 the Göktürks under Ishbara cross the Long Wall and plunder the Sui frontier from Wuwei to Yan'an. In 583 Ishbara marches from Ötüken to Baidao, is defeated and withdraws, and Apa flees west to Tardush. Modern map; the roads of the raids are drawn.

    Map Appears in: Year 582, Ishbara Khan, The Göktürk–Sui wars, 582–603

  • 584The division of the khaganate, AD 584

    Map of Asia in 584 during the Göktürk civil war: the zones of Tardush in the west, Töremen Apa in the middle and Ishbara in the east, the Tarim oasis states and the Hephthalite principalities as tributaries, beside the Eastern Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Sui, the Chen, the Tuyuhun and Goguryeo, and between the steppe and China the wall of the Northern Qi and a hatched frontier zone © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    The Göktürk realm in 584, when the civil war broke out: Tardush in the west, Töremen Apa in the middle and Ishbara in the east, beside the Sui, the Chen, Sasanian Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire. Between the steppe and China stand the wall of the Northern Qi (556) and a frontier zone held by neither side. Modern map; the zones are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 584, Tardush, Töremen Apa, First Göktürk Khaganate, The Göktürk Civil War

  • 585585: The Göktürk civil war

    Map of the Göktürk civil war in 585: Tardush in the west from the Black Sea to Suyab, Töremen Apa between the Tian Shan and Ötüken, Ishbara in the east, the advance on Ötüken in September 585, Ishbara's withdrawal to Baidao under Sui protection and his counterattack against Apa, with the Tarim oasis states as tributaries and the Sui to the south © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    585: In September the army of the west advances on Ötüken. Ishbara withdraws to Baidao under the protection of the Sui and strikes back against Apa from there. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the divisions within the khaganate are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 585, Ishbara Khan, Töremen Apa, The Göktürk Civil War

  • 587–588587–588: The Göktürk civil war

    Map of the Göktürk civil war, 587 to 588: Tardush in the west, Niri in Apa's following between the Tian Shan and the Khangai, the eastern khaganate under Bagha and from 588 under Tulan, Bagha's march west in 587 in which Apa was taken alive, and the war with Persia in 588, with the Sui and the Chen to the south © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    587–588: Ishbara dies, and Bagha succeeds him in the east. Bagha marches west and takes Apa alive; Niri leads Apa's following. In 588 Bagha falls and Tulan succeeds, while the west is at war with Persia. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the divisions within the khaganate are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 587, Bagha Khan, Töremen Apa, Tulan Khan, The Göktürk Civil War

  • 589589: Bahram Chobin and the end of the Chen

    Map of Asia in 589: Bahram Chobin's march from Herat to Paikent and the road of Parmūdha and the treasure to Ctesiphon, the Göktürks divided into Tardush, Niri and the eastern khaganate under Tulan, the Sui and the Chen they took in 589, Sasanian Persia and Byzantium © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    589: Bahram Chobin retakes Herat and crosses the Oxus to Paikent; Parmūdha and the treasure are sent to Ctesiphon. In the same year the Sui take the Chen and unite China. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the divisions of the khaganate are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 589, Bahram Chobin

  • 597–599597–599: The Göktürk civil war

    Map of the Göktürk civil war, 597 to 599: Tardush in the west, Niri between the Tian Shan and the Khangai, Tulan in the east, Yami's pastures in the Ordos under Sui protection, the attack of Tulan and Tardush on Yami below the Long Wall in 599 and Yami's flight to Chang'an © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    597–599: Yami, who has married a Sui princess, is attacked below the Long Wall in 599 by Tulan and Tardush. He flees to the Sui court at Chang'an and is made Qimin Khan, and the Sui give his people pastures in the Ordos. Modern map; the roads are drawn, and the divisions within the khaganate are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 597, Tardush, Tulan Khan, Yami Khan, The Göktürk Civil War

  • 600600: Tardush and the Sui

    Map of Asia in 600: Tardush as Bujia Khan over the steppe from the Black Sea to Manchuria, Niri's following in the Altai, Yami under the Sui in the Ordos, and the Sui columns to Mount Dajin © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    600: Tardush, now Bujia Khan, holds the whole steppe. Yami rules in the Ordos as Qimin Khan under the Sui. At Mount Dajin Tardush withdraws before Shi Wansui without a fight. Modern map; the site of the mountain and the roads are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 600

  • c. 603The division of the khaganate, c. AD 603

    Map of Asia around 603: the Western Göktürk Khaganate from the Black Sea to the Tian Shan and the Eastern Göktürk Khaganate from the Khangai to the Khitan, the Tarim oasis states and the Hephthalite principalities as tributaries of the west, beside the Eastern Roman Empire, Sasanian Persia, the Sui, the Tuyuhun and Goguryeo, and between the steppe and China the wall of the Northern Qi, Yami's pasture in the Ordos and a hatched frontier zone © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    The khaganate divided around 603: the Western Göktürk Khaganate from the Black Sea to the Tian Shan and the Eastern Göktürk Khaganate from the Khangai to the Khitan, beside the Sui, now ruling all of China, Sasanian Persia and the Eastern Roman Empire. Between the steppe and China stand the wall of the Northern Qi (556) and a frontier zone held by neither side. The Baidao plain belongs to the Göktürks, and the north of the Ordos is Yami's pasture. Modern map; the line between east and west is approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 603, Tardush, Yami Khan, The Göktürk Civil War

  • 627627: The Caucasus campaign and the revolt of the Tiele

    Map of Eurasia in 627: the western Göktürk khaganate under Tong Yabgu from the Caucasus to the Tarim, the march of Jebu Xak'an through Derbent to Tiflis and of Heraclius to the siege of Tiflis, the eastern Göktürk khaganate under Ilig Khan with the revolt of the Tiele, the Tang, Tibet, Sasanian Persia and Byzantium © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    627: In the west Tong Yabgu's army breaks through Derbent, and before Tiflis Jebu Xak'an meets the emperor Heraclius. In the east the Tiele rise against Ilig Khan, and a great snow kills the herds of his people. Modern map; the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 627, Tong Yabgu

  • 628628: The murder of Tong Yabgu and the secession of the Tiele

    Map of Eurasia in 628: the western Göktürk khaganate in the war of two khans, the Xueyantuo under Yinan moving east from the Altai, the Tiele between the Khangai and the Selenga fallen away from the eastern khaganate of Ilig Khan, the second march of Jebu Xak'an to Tiflis, the Tang, Tibet, Sasanian Persia and Byzantium © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    628: In the west Tong Yabgu is murdered by his uncle, and two khans fight over the realm; Yinan leads the Xueyantuo east from the Altai. In the east the Tiele fall away from Ilig Khan, and Töles submits to the Tang. In the Caucasus Jebu Xak'an storms Tiflis in 628 or 629. Modern map; the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 628, Xueyantuo Khaganate (Syr Tardush), Murder of Tong Yabgu (630)

  • 630630: The fall of the eastern khaganate

    Map of Eurasia in 630: Li Jing's attack on Dingxiang and his victory at the Iron Mountain north of the Yin Mountains, the Göktürks under Tang protectorates along the Yellow River, the Xueyantuo north of the Gobi, Yiwu with the Tang, the western Göktürk khaganate under Si Yabgu Khan and the battle at Lake Sevan © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    630: Li Jing falls on Dingxiang by night and destroys the eastern khaganate at the Iron Mountain. The Göktürks are settled under Tang protectorates along the Yellow River; north of the Gobi the Xueyantuo hold the steppe, and Yiwu goes over to the Tang. In the west Si Yabgu Khan rules; in the Caucasus the northern army wins at Lake Sevan. Modern map; the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 630, Tang conquest of the eastern Khaganate, 626–630, History of the Turkic peoples

  • 638638: The western khaganate divided

    Map of Asia in 638: the western Göktürk khaganate divided at the Ili between the Nushibi under Ishbara Tolis Khan and the Duolu under Yukuk Shad, with the Xueyantuo, the Tang and the Caliphate © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    638: The Duolu tribes raise Yukuk Shad as khan against Ishbara Tolis. The western khaganate is divided at the Ili: the Nushibi in the west, the Duolu in the east. Modern map; the border away from the river is drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 638

  • 648648: The Tang conquest of the Tarim

    Map of Central Asia in 648: the Tang advance from Xizhou (Gaochang) by Karashahr to Kucha, the seat of the Anxi protectorate, the Four Garrisons of Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar and Suyab, the western Göktürk khaganate under Irbis Shegui Khan, Chebi Khan in the Altai and the Yanran protectorate © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    648: The Tang take the Tarim step by step: Gaochang in 640, Karashahr in 644, Kucha in 648, where the Anxi protectorate now sits. Kucha, Khotan, Kashgar and Suyab become the Four Garrisons. North of the Tian Shan the western khaganate holds on under Irbis Shegui Khan; in the Altai Chebi Khan is still free. Modern map; the borders in the steppe are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 648, The Tang conquest of the western Khaganate, 640–659, Kucha

  • 650The Western khaganate and the Tang, AD 650

    Map of Asia in 650: the Western Göktürk Khaganate from the Tarbagatai to the Oxus with Sogdia and Tokharistan as dependants, the Tang with the protectorate of Yanran over the steppe, the Kirghiz and the oasis states of the Tarim as tributaries, beside Tibet, the Tuyuhun, the Korean kingdoms, Japan, the Rashidun Caliphate, the rest of Sasanian Persia, the Khazars, Great Bulgaria, the Avars and the Eastern Roman Empire © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    Asia in 650: the Western Göktürk Khaganate under Irbis Shegui Khan reaches from the Tarbagatai to the Oxus, with Sogdia and Tokharistan as dependants. In the east the Tang rule the steppe through the protectorate of Yanran; the Kirghiz and the oasis states of the Tarim pay them tribute, and Anxi sits at Kucha. In the west the Caliphate has taken Iraq and western Iran, and Yazdegerd III holds only Khorasan and Sistan. Modern map; the edges of the khaganate and the protectorates are approximate.

    Map Appears in: Year 650, Irbis Shegui Khan, History of the Turkic peoples

  • 657657: The end of the western khaganate

    Map of Asia in 657: the land of the western Göktürks as ten prefectures under the Tang, the Yanran protectorate in the steppe, the Tarim oases, Tibet and the Rashidun Caliphate up to the Oxus © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    657: The Tang take Ashina Helu, the last khan of the western Göktürks. Their land becomes ten prefectures under the Tang. Modern map; the bounds of the prefectures are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 657, History of the Turkic peoples

  • 670670: Tibet takes the Four Garrisons

    Map of Asia in 670: the Tarim oases under Tibet, with an arrow to Kucha, the Tang and their protectorates, the western Göktürks under the Tang and the Umayyad Caliphate © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    670: Tibet takes the Four Garrisons of the Tarim from the Tang. For thirty years the oases change hands again and again. Modern map; the extent of Tibet's hold is drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 670

  • 679–681679–681: The risings of Nishufu and Funian

    Map of northern China and the steppe, 679 to 681: the Göktürks of the Ordos and of Yunzhong in revolt, Pei Xingjian's marches from Chang'an to Black Mountain and into the west against Ashina Duzhi, Funian raised at Xiazhou, numbered in the order of events © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    679–681: In 679 the Göktürks of the Chanyu protectorate raise Nishufu as khan, and twenty-four prefectures rise with them. Pei Xingjian beats them at Black Mountain in 680, and Nishufu is killed by his own men. Funian, raised next at Xiazhou, surrenders to Pei Xingjian in 681 and is beheaded at Chang'an. The numbers follow the order of events. Modern map; the roads are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 679, Ashina Funian, Nishufu Khan, Pei Xingjian

  • 682682: The rising of Ilterish

    Map of northern China and the steppe in 682: the land of Ilterish north of the Yellow River with Heisha and Zongcai Mountain, his raid on the Nine Oguz and the raids on Bingzhou, Lanzhou and Dingzhou, numbered in the order of events © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    682: After Funian's defeat Gudulu gathers the fugitives at Zongcai Mountain and Heisha, raids the Nine Oguz and makes himself Ilterish Khan. Ashide Yuanzhen goes over to him. In the tenth month the Göktürks raid Bingzhou, Lanzhou and Dingzhou. The numbers follow the order of events. Modern map; the roads are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 682, Ilterish Khan, Second Göktürk Khaganate

  • 691691: Kapgan Khan takes the throne

    Map of Asia in 691: the Second Göktürk Khaganate in Mongolia under Kapgan Khan, the Türgesh around Suyab, the Tarim under Tibet, the Tang and the Umayyad Caliphate © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    691: Kapgan Khan takes the throne of the Second Göktürk Khaganate. In the west the Türgesh hold the Chu valley around Suyab. Modern map; the borders are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 691

  • 692692: The Tang retake the Four Garrisons

    Map of Asia in 692: the Tarim oases again under the Tang, with Wang Xiaojie's march to Kucha, the Second Göktürk Khaganate, the Türgesh and Tibet © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    692: The Tang under Wang Xiaojie take the Four Garrisons of the Tarim back from Tibet. Modern map; the road of the army is drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 692

  • 699699: Kapgan orders the realm

    Map of Asia in 699: the Second Göktürk Khaganate under Kapgan Khan, the Türgesh under Wuzhile around Suyab, Tang China and Tibet © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    699: Kapgan Khan orders his realm under two shads and makes his son Fuju Lesser Khan in the west. The tribes of the Ten Arrows choose the Türgesh Wuzhile. Modern map; the borders are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 699

  • 711711: Kapgan's western war

    Map of Asia in 710–711: the Second Göktürk Khaganate with the Kirghiz, the Türgesh and the Sogdians as subjects, and the campaigns over the Kögmen, to Bolchu and to the Iron Gate © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    710–711: Tonyukuk crosses the Kögmen and kills the Kirghiz khan, destroys the Türgesh at Bolchu and leads the army to the Iron Gate, where the Sogdians submit. Modern map; the routes are drawn between the places the inscriptions name.

    Map Appears in: Year 711

  • 716716: The death of Kapgan and Bilge Khan

    Map of Asia in 716: Kapgan Khan killed on the Tola, Bilge Khan on the throne of the Second Göktürk Khaganate, the Türgesh, Tang China and Tibet © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    716: Kapgan Khan falls to the Bayirku on the Tola. Kül Tegin sets his brother on the throne as Bilge Khan. Modern map; the borders are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 716

  • 717717: Sulu and the Türgesh

    Map of Asia in 717: Sulu khan of the Türgesh, Bilge Khan in the Second Göktürk Khaganate, the Arab siege of Constantinople © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    717: Sulu becomes khan of the Türgesh. Bilge Khan rules the east with Kül Tegin and Tonyukuk. The Arabs besiege Constantinople. Modern map; the borders are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 717

  • 721721: Tonyukuk and the war with the Tang

    Map of Asia in 721: Tonyukuk takes Beiting and raids Liangzhou, the revolt of the six counties in the Ordos © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    721: Tonyukuk takes Beiting before the Basmïl and strips Liangzhou of its herds. The six counties of the Ordos revolt. Modern map; the roads are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 721

  • 734734: The death of Bilge Khan

    Map of Asia in 734: the death of Bilge Khan, Yiran Khan and Tengri Khan in the Second Göktürk Khaganate, Sulu of the Türgesh © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    734: Bilge Khan is poisoned by his minister and dies. His son Yiran follows and dies within months, and the boy Tengri Khan takes the throne. Modern map; the borders are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 734

  • 744744: The rise of the Uyghurs

    Map of Asia in 744: the Uyghur Khaganate on the Orkhon, the Basmïl and Karluks in the Altai, the Türgesh breaking up, Tang China and Tibet © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    744: The Basmïl kill Ozmish Khan, and the Uyghurs and Karluks kill the Basmïl khan. Kutlug Bilge Kül becomes the first khan of the Uyghurs. Modern map; the zone of the Basmïl and Karluks is drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 744

  • 745745: The Uyghur Khaganate

    Map of Asia in 745: the Uyghur Khaganate from the Altai to the Shiwei, the Karluks moving west to the Ten Arrows, and the Katun Pofu going to the Tang © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    745: Baimei Khan is killed, and the Katun Pofu goes over to the Tang with her people. The Karluks move west into the lands of the Ten Arrows. The Uyghurs hold the steppe from the Altai to the Shiwei. Modern map; the roads are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 745

  • 790790: The war over Beiting

    Map of Asia in 790: the Uyghur Khaganate, Beiting lost to Tibet, Anxi cut off from the Tang, the Karluks and the Abbasid Caliphate © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    790: The Uyghurs lose Beiting to the Tibetans and march against them in 790 and 791. Anxi holds out for the Tang, cut off from China. Modern map; the borders are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 790

  • 821821: The khaganate at war with the Kirghiz

    Map of Asia in 821: the Uyghur Khaganate at war with the Kirghiz, the road of Tamim ibn Bahr, the Tibet–Tang treaty © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    821: The Uyghurs fight the Kirghiz in the north. Tamim ibn Bahr rides the postal road to the Uyghur capital. Tibet and the Tang fix their frontier by treaty. Modern map; the road is drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 821

  • 840840: The fall of the Uyghur Khaganate

    Map of Asia in 840: the Kirghiz destroy Ordu-Baliq, and the Uyghurs flee to the Tang frontier, to Gansu, to the Tarim and to the Karluks; the steppe is left empty © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    840: The Kirghiz destroy the Uyghur Khaganate and burn Ordu-Baliq. The Uyghurs scatter to the Tang frontier, to Gansu, to the Tarim and to the Karluks. Modern map; the roads of the flight are drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 840, History of the Turkic peoples

  • 842842: After the fall of the Uyghurs

    Map of Asia in 842: Wujie's Uyghurs on the Tang frontier, the Kirghiz in the north, the Tibetan empire breaking up © Emre-E Yavuz 2026
    842: Wujie's Uyghurs camp on the Tang frontier, and the first Kirghiz envoy reaches the Tang. The Tibetan empire comes apart. Modern map; the road of the envoys is drawn, not recorded.

    Map Appears in: Year 842

Photographs and historical images

Photographs, and images made in their own time.

Lead image 115 · Panorama 1 · In the text 64 · Reading path 8

  • Afrasiab on the throne of Iran, which he took after killing Nowzar. A page of the Shahnameh made for Shah Tahmasp at Tabriz, about 1525–30, painting attributed to Bashdan Qara.
    Afrasiab on the throne of Iran, which he took after killing Nowzar. A page of the Shahnameh made for Shah Tahmasp at Tabriz, about 1525–30, painting attributed to Bashdan Qara. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1970.301.16, gift of Arthur A. Houghton Jr., 1970; detail. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Afrasiab

  • The left half of the west wall of the Hall of the Ambassadors, as mounted in the museum beside the Afrasiab mound: in the lower file three figures in white caftans, above them the caftan bearing the long Sogdian inscription.
    The left half of the west wall of the Hall of the Ambassadors, as mounted in the museum beside the Afrasiab mound: in the lower file three figures in white caftans, above them the caftan bearing the long Sogdian inscription. Photograph: Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • Map of Khurasan from a manuscript of al-Istakhri's geography, the Book of Routes and Realms.
    Map of Khurasan from a manuscript of al-Istakhri's geography, the Book of Routes and Realms. Al-Istakhri, manuscript map, reproduction, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: al-Iṣṭakhrī

  • Ka Nasi Lake in the Chinese part of the Altai, photographed by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station in 2023.
    Ka Nasi Lake in the Chinese part of the Altai, photographed by an astronaut aboard the International Space Station in 2023. Astronaut photograph iss069e071176. NASA, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Altai

  • Page of a ninth-century manuscript of Ammianus Marcellinus (Vaticanus lat. 1873) with Res gestae 31,2, the description of the Huns.
    Page of a ninth-century manuscript of Ammianus Marcellinus (Vaticanus lat. 1873) with Res gestae 31,2, the description of the Huns. Ammianus Marcellinus, Res gestae, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Vat. lat. 1873, reproduction, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Ammianus Marcellinus

  • A sacred cairn (obo) near Alkhanai mountain in Transbaikalia, the stones whitewashed and the birches around it hung with blue ribbons, photographed in 2000.
    A sacred cairn (obo) near Alkhanai mountain in Transbaikalia, the stones whitewashed and the birches around it hung with blue ribbons, photographed in 2000. Photograph: William Craft Brumfield, 2000; Library of Congress, no known restrictions.

    Lead image Appears in: Animism

  • The Roman forum of Aquileia in Friuli, north-eastern Italy, with the columns of its eastern portico, which were restored and partly re-erected in 1936 and 1937; photograph of 2015. Aquileia was the chief city of Venetia, and it fell to Attila's Huns in 452 after a long siege.
    The Roman forum of Aquileia in Friuli, north-eastern Italy, with the columns of its eastern portico, which were restored and partly re-erected in 1936 and 1937; photograph of 2015. Aquileia was the chief city of Venetia, and it fell to Attila's Huns in 452 after a long siege. Image: Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Aquileia

  • A crowned figure holding a crescent moon, a star on either side: coin, eighth century.
    A crowned figure holding a crescent moon, a star on either side: coin, eighth century.

    Lead image Appears in: Ay Ata

  • Ayran sellers in the market of Aulie-Ata on the Talas river, the modern Taraz in Kazakhstan, photographed between 1865 and 1872 for the Turkestan Album.
    Ayran sellers in the market of Aulie-Ata on the Talas river, the modern Taraz in Kazakhstan, photographed between 1865 and 1872 for the Turkestan Album. Photograph: Turkestan Album, ethnographic part, plate 105. Library of Congress, no known restrictions on publication.

    Lead image Appears in: Ayran

  • Silver coin of Eukratides I, king of Bactria between 170 and 145 BC, with his portrait in a crested helmet.
    Silver coin of Eukratides I, king of Bactria between 170 and 145 BC, with his portrait in a crested helmet. The Cleveland Museum of Art, 2011.211, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Bactria

  • The city of Hohhot on the plain at the foot of the Daqing Shan in Inner Mongolia, photographed from the International Space Station in 2011. Baidao may have lain north of Guihuacheng, the old town of Hohhot.
    The city of Hohhot on the plain at the foot of the Daqing Shan in Inner Mongolia, photographed from the International Space Station in 2011. Baidao may have lain north of Guihuacheng, the old town of Hohhot. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Baidao Plain

  • The Burana Tower near Tokmok in the Chu valley, Kyrgyzstan.
    The Burana Tower near Tokmok in the Chu valley, Kyrgyzstan. Photograph: Bernard Gagnon, 2023, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Balasaghun

  • The Bala Hissar, the citadel of Balkh, and the old city walls above the fields, 2025.
    The Bala Hissar, the citadel of Balkh, and the old city walls above the fields, 2025. Photograph: Jialiang Gao, 2025, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Balkh

  • A page of the account of the western Göktürks in chapter 215B of the Xin Tang Shu, in a Yuan-period printed edition repaired under the Ming, in the National Archives of Japan. The second column of the right-hand page says that seven days' march north-west from Yanqi reach the Southern Court and eight days' march north the Northern Court.
    A page of the account of the western Göktürks in chapter 215B of the Xin Tang Shu, in a Yuan-period printed edition repaired under the Ming, in the National Archives of Japan. The second column of the right-hand page says that seven days' march north-west from Yanqi reach the Southern Court and eight days' march north the Northern Court. Image: National Archives of Japan. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Beiting

  • The Berel kurgans in the Kazakh Altai, 2018.
    The Berel kurgans in the Kazakh Altai, 2018. Photograph: Mheidegger, 2018, CC BY 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Berel

  • A rider with a halo and his mounted escort, from a wall painting in the West Temple at Beshbalik, the Buddhist temple that the Uyghurs of Qocho built west of the city. The scene belongs to the division of the relics of the Buddha among eight kings; it was painted in the tenth century.
    A rider with a halo and his mounted escort, from a wall painting in the West Temple at Beshbalik, the Buddhist temple that the Uyghurs of Qocho built west of the city. The scene belongs to the division of the relics of the Buddha among eight kings; it was painted in the tenth century. Wall painting: West Temple, Beiting (Beshbalik), tenth century. Photograph: Zhentong Li, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Beshbalik

  • Excavated remains of ancient Panticapaeum on Mount Mithridates in Kerch, in the eastern Crimea, with the town below; photograph of 2021. Bosporos, the ancient Panticapaeum, fell to a Göktürk army and the Utigurs while the Roman envoy Valentinos was among the Göktürks.
    Excavated remains of ancient Panticapaeum on Mount Mithridates in Kerch, in the eastern Crimea, with the town below; photograph of 2021. Bosporos, the ancient Panticapaeum, fell to a Göktürk army and the Utigurs while the Roman envoy Valentinos was among the Göktürks. Image: Alexxx Malev, CC BY-SA 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Bosporos

  • The entrance to the Emir’s palace in the old city of Bukhara, photographed by Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii between 1905 and 1915.
    The entrance to the Emir’s palace in the old city of Bukhara, photographed by Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii between 1905 and 1915. Photograph: Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. No known restrictions on publication.

    Lead image Appears in: Bukhara

  • A weathered stone figure at its stone setting on the steppe near Burd, Övörkhangai, in central Mongolia. Monuments of this kind are commonly called balbals; strictly, the balbals are the rough stones set in a line from the grave.
    A weathered stone figure at its stone setting on the steppe near Burd, Övörkhangai, in central Mongolia. Monuments of this kind are commonly called balbals; strictly, the balbals are the rough stones set in a line from the grave. Photograph: Mongolia Expeditions, 2011, CC BY 3.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Burial and the balbal

  • Gold solidus of the Byzantine empire, struck between 565 and 578.
    Gold solidus of the Byzantine empire, struck between 565 and 578. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 04.35.3353, Gift of Darius Ogden Mills, 1904, Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: Byzantium

  • The Kukeldash madrasa in Tashkent, from the Turkestan album of 1865–1872.
    The Kukeldash madrasa in Tashkent, from the Turkestan album of 1865–1872. Photograph: N. V. Bogaevskii, Turkestan album; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. No known restrictions on publication.

    Lead image Appears in: Chach

  • The ruins of ancient Chersonesus on the south-western coast of the Crimea, near Sevastopol, with the columns of a basilica above the Black Sea; photograph of 2023. Cherson was probably this city. In 579 the emperor Tiberius told an Avar embassy that the Göktürks were encamped there.
    The ruins of ancient Chersonesus on the south-western coast of the Crimea, near Sevastopol, with the columns of a basilica above the Black Sea; photograph of 2023. Cherson was probably this city. In 579 the emperor Tiberius told an Avar embassy that the Göktürks were encamped there. Image: Alexxx Malev, CC BY-SA 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Cherson

  • Wall painting from a ruined temple at Qocho, read as a Palm Sunday procession and dated 683–770 CE. Berlin.
    Wall painting from a ruined temple at Qocho, read as a Palm Sunday procession and dated 683–770 CE. Berlin. Photograph: Daderot, 2014, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Church of the East

  • The Madara Rider, a rock relief of the eighth to ninth century near Shumen in north-eastern Bulgaria.
    The Madara Rider, a rock relief of the eighth to ninth century near Shumen in north-eastern Bulgaria. Photograph: G. Nockemann, 2011, CC BY-SA 3.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Danube Bulgaria

  • Deer stones at Uushgiin Uvur in Mongolia.
    Deer stones at Uushgiin Uvur in Mongolia. Photograph: Bernard Gagnon, 2023, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Deer stones

  • Derbent between the shore of the Caspian Sea and the foothills of the Caucasus, photographed from the International Space Station in 2005.
    Derbent between the shore of the Caspian Sea and the foothills of the Caucasus, photographed from the International Space Station in 2005. Astronaut photograph ISS011-E-10601. NASA, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Derbent

  • A page of chapter 84 of the Sui Shu in a Japanese edition of 1844, in the National Diet Library, Tokyo. In the second column from the right, the text says that the Göktürks brought the empress Xiao and installed her at Dingxiang (定襄).
    A page of chapter 84 of the Sui Shu in a Japanese edition of 1844, in the National Diet Library, Tokyo. In the second column from the right, the text says that the Göktürks brought the empress Xiao and installed her at Dingxiang (定襄). Image: National Diet Library, Japan. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Dingxiang

  • The world map of Mahmud al-Kashgari's dictionary, from a manuscript of the work.
    The world map of Mahmud al-Kashgari's dictionary, from a manuscript of the work. Mahmud al-Kashgari, eleventh century, manuscript copy, reproduction, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Dīvān Lughāt al-Turk

  • The Mogao Grottoes near Dunhuang, December 2013.
    The Mogao Grottoes near Dunhuang, December 2013. Photograph: Zhangzhugang, 2013, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Dunhuang

  • Dunes and sedimentary layers in the Junggar Basin, photographed from the International Space Station in 2023.
    Dunes and sedimentary layers in the Junggar Basin, photographed from the International Space Station in 2023. Astronaut photograph ISS069-E-16826. NASA, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Dzungaria

  • A page of the 1851 Paris edition of the Greek historical fragments, with Menander's account of the Roman embassy of 569 in Greek and Latin. The right-hand Greek column names the mountain Ektag, 'as a Greek would say, the golden mountain', where the envoys found Istemi.
    A page of the 1851 Paris edition of the Greek historical fragments, with Menander's account of the Roman embassy of 569 in Greek and Latin. The right-hand Greek column names the mountain Ektag, 'as a Greek would say, the golden mountain', where the envoys found Istemi. Image: Karl Müller (ed.), Fragmenta Historicorum Graecorum IV, Paris: Didot 1851; scan University of Toronto Libraries. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Ektag

  • A herder on horseback with a flock of sheep and goats on the open steppe of Mongolia, photographed in 1909.
    A herder on horseback with a flock of sheep and goats on the open steppe of Mongolia, photographed in 1909. Finnish Heritage Agency (Museovirasto), General Ethnographic Photo Collection, VKK156:33. Photograph by Sakari Pälsi, 1909. Finna, CC BY 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Eurasian Nomads

  • The palace of Khudoyar Khan at Kokand in the Ferghana valley, from the Turkestan album of 1865–1872.
    The palace of Khudoyar Khan at Kokand in the Ferghana valley, from the Turkestan album of 1865–1872. Photograph: Turkestan album; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. No known restrictions on publication.

    Lead image Appears in: Ferghana

  • The ruins of Gaochang from the air: the mud-brick walls and halls of the city in the Turfan depression, with the fields of the oasis behind.
    The ruins of Gaochang from the air: the mud-brick walls and halls of the city in the Turfan depression, with the fields of the oasis behind.

    Lead image Appears in: Gaochang

  • The illuminated opening pages of a manuscript of Bal'ami's Persian translation of Tabari's History, copied in the thirteenth or fourteenth century, in the Library of Congress. Tabari tells how a khagan turned back before the fortified gate of Sul without a battle; where the gate stood is disputed.
    The illuminated opening pages of a manuscript of Bal'ami's Persian translation of Tabari's History, copied in the thirteenth or fourteenth century, in the Library of Congress. Tabari tells how a khagan turned back before the fortified gate of Sul without a battle; where the gate stood is disputed. Image: Library of Congress, African and Middle East Division. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Gate of Sul

  • Khosrow II flees from Bahram Chobin, the Persian commander of the war of 588, and is saved by the angel Sarush. Painting in a Shahnama made in Baghdad about 1299.
    Khosrow II flees from Bahram Chobin, the Persian commander of the war of 588, and is saved by the angel Sarush. Painting in a Shahnama made in Baghdad about 1299. The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1944.480.1.a, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Göktürk–Persian war, 588–589

  • The south-eastern corner of the Caspian Sea with the Gulf of Gorgan, the Miankaleh spit and the Elburz beyond, photographed from the International Space Station in April 2022. Gurgan is the land at the south-eastern corner of the Caspian, the Hyrcania of the Greeks.
    The south-eastern corner of the Caspian Sea with the Gulf of Gorgan, the Miankaleh spit and the Elburz beyond, photographed from the International Space Station in April 2022. Gurgan is the land at the south-eastern corner of the Caspian, the Hyrcania of the Greeks. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Gurgan

  • Wuzhu coins of the Western Han in the coin gallery of the Shanghai Museum.
    Wuzhu coins of the Western Han in the coin gallery of the Shanghai Museum. Photograph: Gary Lee Todd, 2010, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Han dynasty

  • The city of Datong and its basin in northern Shanxi, photographed from the International Space Station in 2010. One identification makes Heng'an the Yunzhong county of the Tang and places it at Datong county.
    The city of Datong and its basin in northern Shanxi, photographed from the International Space Station in 2010. One identification makes Heng'an the Yunzhong county of the Tang and places it at Datong county. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Heng'an

  • Envoy of the Hua (滑國), as the Liang court called the Hephthalites, carrying a bowl. From “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, a copy after a painting ascribed to Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–555); an inscription of the Song emperor Lizong names Gu Deqian of the Southern Tang as the copyist.
    Envoy of the Hua (滑國), as the Liang court called the Hephthalites, carrying a bowl. From “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, a copy after a painting ascribed to Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–555); an inscription of the Song emperor Lizong names Gu Deqian of the Southern Tang as the copyist. Handscroll, ink on paper; National Palace Museum, Taipei, 故畫001389N. Copy of Emperor Yuan of Liang’s “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, The National Palace Museum, Taipei, CC BY 4.0 @ www.npm.gov.tw.

    Lead image Appears in: Hephthalites

  • The snow-covered valley of the Hari Rud east of Herat, photographed from the International Space Station in 2003.
    The snow-covered valley of the Hari Rud east of Herat, photographed from the International Space Station in 2003. Astronaut photograph ISS006-E-25613. NASA, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Herat

  • A dry lake bed on the plateau of Zhangbei county in northern Hebei, photographed from the International Space Station in 2015. Modern scholarship places Huaihuang near Zhangbei, on the edge of the Mongolian plateau.
    A dry lake bed on the plateau of Zhangbei county in northern Hebei, photographed from the International Space Station in 2015. Modern scholarship places Huaihuang near Zhangbei, on the edge of the Mongolian plateau. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Huaihuang

  • The irrigated valley of the Kunduz river, here called the Surkhab, around Baghlan in northern Afghanistan, photographed from the International Space Station in May 2007. Huo is placed at Kunduz by some and at Ghori on the road from Kunduz to Kabul by others; Baghlan lies between the two.
    The irrigated valley of the Kunduz river, here called the Surkhab, around Baghlan in northern Afghanistan, photographed from the International Space Station in May 2007. Huo is placed at Kunduz by some and at Ghori on the road from Kunduz to Kabul by others; Baghlan lies between the two. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Huo

  • The booklet open at page 6: runiform lines in black with red punctuation, and the Chinese Buddhist text of the other side showing at the edge.
    The booklet open at page 6: runiform lines in black with red punctuation, and the Chinese Buddhist text of the other side showing at the edge. British Library, Or.8212/161, via the International Dunhuang Project. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Irk Bitig

  • A page of the life of Li Jing in chapter 93 of the Xin Tang Shu, in a Japanese edition of 1750, in the National Diet Library, Tokyo. In the seventh column from the right, the text says that Ilig fled to the Iron Mountain (鐵山) to make a stand and sent envoys to ask that his state be received in submission.
    A page of the life of Li Jing in chapter 93 of the Xin Tang Shu, in a Japanese edition of 1750, in the National Diet Library, Tokyo. In the seventh column from the right, the text says that Ilig fled to the Iron Mountain (鐵山) to make a stand and sent envoys to ask that his state be received in submission. Image: National Diet Library, Japan. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Iron Mountain

  • Lake Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan between the snow-covered ranges of the Tian Shan, photographed from the International Space Station in October 2019. Xuanzang's Record calls it the Great Clear Lake, long from east to west and surrounded by mountains on all sides.
    Lake Issyk-Kul in Kyrgyzstan between the snow-covered ranges of the Tian Shan, photographed from the International Space Station in October 2019. Xuanzang's Record calls it the Great Clear Lake, long from east to west and surrounded by mountains on all sides. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Issyk-Kul

  • Remains of the Han wall at the Jade Gate Pass in the desert west of Dunhuang, August 2011.
    Remains of the Han wall at the Jade Gate Pass in the desert west of Dunhuang, August 2011. Photograph: Raki_Man, 2011, CC BY 3.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Jade Gate

  • A pavilion at the spring called Jiuquan, 'Wine Spring', in Suzhou, the modern town of Jiuquan in Gansu, photographed by Irving C. Yew of Sven Hedin's Sino-Swedish expedition in December 1934.
    A pavilion at the spring called Jiuquan, 'Wine Spring', in Suzhou, the modern town of Jiuquan in Gansu, photographed by Irving C. Yew of Sven Hedin's Sino-Swedish expedition in December 1934. Image: Irving C. Yew, Museum of Ethnography, Stockholm. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Jiuquan

  • A Tuvan shaman with his frame drum before a felt yurt, photographed about 1900. It shows the practice as ethnographers recorded it among the Turkic peoples of southern Siberia, thirteen centuries after the Göktürks.
    A Tuvan shaman with his frame drum before a felt yurt, photographed about 1900. It shows the practice as ethnographers recorded it among the Turkic peoples of southern Siberia, thirteen centuries after the Göktürks. Photograph: unknown Russian photographer, about 1900; Hamburgisches Museum für Völkerkunde. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Kam (Turkic Shaman)

  • The so-called Moses coin, a Khazar silver coin from the Spillings hoard on Gotland, in the museum at Visby.
    The so-called Moses coin, a Khazar silver coin from the Spillings hoard on Gotland, in the museum at Visby. Photograph: W. Carter, 2015, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Khazar Khaganate

  • Fragment of a Liao-dynasty tomb mural showing a Khitan man and a Khitan boy, from a tomb at Paolou Hill in Lindong, excavated in 1988.
    Fragment of a Liao-dynasty tomb mural showing a Khitan man and a Khitan boy, from a tomb at Paolou Hill in Lindong, excavated in 1988. Photograph: BabelStone, 2016, CC BY-SA 3.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Khitan

  • The irrigated oasis around Urgench by the Amu Darya, astronaut photograph, 2022.
    The irrigated oasis around Urgench by the Amu Darya, astronaut photograph, 2022. Astronaut photograph iss067e212667. NASA, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Khorezm

  • Envoy of Khotan (于闐), holding a small flask. From “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, a copy after a painting ascribed to Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–555); an inscription of the Song emperor Lizong names Gu Deqian of the Southern Tang as the copyist.
    Envoy of Khotan (于闐), holding a small flask. From “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, a copy after a painting ascribed to Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–555); an inscription of the Song emperor Lizong names Gu Deqian of the Southern Tang as the copyist. Handscroll, ink on paper; National Palace Museum, Taipei, 故畫001389N. Copy of Emperor Yuan of Liang’s “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, The National Palace Museum, Taipei, CC BY 4.0 @ www.npm.gov.tw.

    Lead image Appears in: Khotan

  • Armoured horsemen on both sides of a city gate, a wall painting from the Buddhist cave temples of the Kucha region.
    Armoured horsemen on both sides of a city gate, a wall painting from the Buddhist cave temples of the Kucha region.

    Lead image Appears in: Kucha

  • Bowls of shubat, fermented camel milk (left), and kumis, fermented mare's milk (right).
    Bowls of shubat, fermented camel milk (left), and kumis, fermented mare's milk (right). Photograph: Upyernoz, 2010, CC BY 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Kumys

  • Gold coin of the Kushan king Kanishka, struck about 130 CE in the region of Gandhara.
    Gold coin of the Kushan king Kanishka, struck about 130 CE in the region of Gandhara. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 99.35.3024, Bequest of Joseph H. Durkee, 1898, Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: Kushan Empire

  • Lake Sevan in Armenia with snow on the surrounding mountains, astronaut photograph, April 2002.
    Lake Sevan in Armenia with snow on the surrounding mountains, astronaut photograph, April 2002. Astronaut photograph ISS004-E-10651. NASA, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Lake Sevan

  • The Big Wild Goose Pagoda in the Ci'en monastery at Xi'an, the former Chang'an, where Xuanzang translated the scriptures he brought back.
    The Big Wild Goose Pagoda in the Ci'en monastery at Xi'an, the former Chang'an, where Xuanzang translated the scriptures he brought back. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2009, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Life of Xuanzang

  • The Danube in Serbia where the Great Morava flows into it, photographed from the International Space Station on 25 June 2016. The Roman city of Margus lay near this confluence, by the modern village of Dubravica east of Belgrade.
    The Danube in Serbia where the Great Morava flows into it, photographed from the International Space Station on 25 June 2016. The Roman city of Margus lay near this confluence, by the modern village of Dubravica east of Belgrade. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Margus

  • The city of Shuozhou and the plain around it in northern Shanxi, photographed from the International Space Station in 2011. One identification places Mayi east of Shuo county, on the east bank of the Mayi river.
    The city of Shuozhou and the plain around it in northern Shanxi, photographed from the International Space Station in 2011. One identification places Mayi east of Shuo county, on the east bank of the Mayi river. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Mayi

  • The mosque and mausoleum of Yusuf Hamadani at ancient Merv, in a colour photograph taken between 1905 and 1915. The shrine is of the twelfth century.
    The mosque and mausoleum of Yusuf Hamadani at ancient Merv, in a colour photograph taken between 1905 and 1915. The shrine is of the twelfth century. Photograph: Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii, between 1905 and 1915; Library of Congress, no known restrictions.

    Lead image Appears in: Merv

  • Silver plate with a Sasanian king hunting rams from horseback, Iran, mid-fifth to mid-sixth century. The rider turns in the saddle and draws the bow at full gallop.
    Silver plate with a Sasanian king hunting rams from horseback, Iran, mid-fifth to mid-sixth century. The rider turns in the saddle and draws the bow at full gallop. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 34.33, Fletcher Fund, 1934. Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: Mounted Archery

  • The Nišava river in Niš, southern Serbia, with the walls of the town's fortress along its bank, photographed in 2014. Roman Naissus, the modern Niš and the birthplace of Constantine, lay on the right bank of the Nišava.
    The Nišava river in Niš, southern Serbia, with the walls of the town's fortress along its bank, photographed in 2014. Roman Naissus, the modern Niš and the birthplace of Constantine, lay on the right bank of the Nišava. Image: Gagarin Miljkovich, CC BY 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Naissus

  • An embroidered hanging from the burial mounds of Noin-Ula, first century BCE to first century CE, as shown in a museum.
    An embroidered hanging from the burial mounds of Noin-Ula, first century BCE to first century CE, as shown in a museum. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2022, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Noin Ula

  • Limestone relief of Emperor Xiaowen and his entourage worshipping the Buddha, Northern Wei dynasty, about 522–23.
    Limestone relief of Emperor Xiaowen and his entourage worshipping the Buddha, Northern Wei dynasty, about 522–23. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 35.146, Fletcher Fund, 1935, Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: Northern Wei

  • The stone gate and the funerary couch from the tomb of An Jia, a Sogdian sabao under the Zhou who died in 579, as shown at the Shaanxi History Museum in Xi'an. The painted and gilded reliefs of the couch show scenes from his life, among them his dealings with the nomads.
    The stone gate and the funerary couch from the tomb of An Jia, a Sogdian sabao under the Zhou who died in 579, as shown at the Shaanxi History Museum in Xi'an. The painted and gilded reliefs of the couch show scenes from his life, among them his dealings with the nomads. Photograph: Deadkid dk, 2010, CC BY-SA 3.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Northern Zhou

  • The Yellow River and the dunes of the Kubuqi desert on the northern edge of the Ordos, photographed from the International Space Station in 2022.
    The Yellow River and the dunes of the Kubuqi desert on the northern edge of the Ordos, photographed from the International Space Station in 2022. Astronaut photograph ISS067-E-122535. NASA, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Ordos

  • Bronze plaque of a tiger devouring a ram, attributed to the Xiongnu, about the second century BCE.
    Bronze plaque of a tiger devouring a ram, attributed to the Xiongnu, about the second century BCE. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 49.132, Rogers Fund, 1949, Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: Ordos bronzes

  • The Orkhon valley in central Mongolia, August 2024.
    The Orkhon valley in central Mongolia, August 2024. Photograph: Jonashtand, 2024, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Orkhon valley

  • The Amu Darya, the Oxus of the ancient writers, near Kerki in Turkmenistan, 1995.
    The Amu Darya, the Oxus of the ancient writers, near Kerki in Turkmenistan, 1995. Photograph: Klaus Schönitzer, 1995, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Oxus

  • The irrigated oasis of Bukhara at the western end of the Zerafshan valley, surrounded by desert and lakes, photographed from the International Space Station in June 2002. Paikent lay in this oasis at the edge of the desert.
    The irrigated oasis of Bukhara at the western end of the Zerafshan valley, surrounded by desert and lakes, photographed from the International Space Station in June 2002. Paikent lay in this oasis at the edge of the desert. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Paikent

  • The excavated ruins of the Sogdian town of Panjikent in the upper Zarafshan valley, Tajikistan, photographed in 2023. Panjikent is the most extensively and continuously excavated town of Central Asia.
    The excavated ruins of the Sogdian town of Panjikent in the upper Zarafshan valley, Tajikistan, photographed in 2023. Panjikent is the most extensively and continuously excavated town of Central Asia. Image: Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Panjikent

  • The brick tower mausoleum in the town of Barda in Azerbaijan, photographed in 2019. Partaw, the capital of Caucasian Albania, is identified with the present town of Barda.
    The brick tower mausoleum in the town of Barda in Azerbaijan, photographed in 2019. Partaw, the capital of Caucasian Albania, is identified with the present town of Barda. Image: Ludvig14, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Partaw

  • Foundations of the palace complex at Pliska.
    Foundations of the palace complex at Pliska. Photograph: Svilen Enev, 2007, CC BY-SA 3.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Pliska

  • Opening leaf of the Radziwiłł (Königsberg) Chronicle, a fifteenth-century copy of the Rus chronicle.
    Opening leaf of the Radziwiłł (Königsberg) Chronicle, a fifteenth-century copy of the Rus chronicle. Radziwiłł Chronicle, 15th century, reproduction of the manuscript, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Russian Primary Chronicle

  • The mausoleum of Ismail Samani at Bukhara, a monument of the Samanid dynasty.
    The mausoleum of Ismail Samani at Bukhara, a monument of the Samanid dynasty. Photograph: Adam Jones, 2012, CC BY-SA 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Samanids

  • Riders on camels and a line of white birds in a procession from the paintings of the Hall of the Ambassadors at Afrasiab, the old site of Samarkand, seventh century. The paintings left Uzbekistan for the first time in 2022 for an exhibition at the Louvre.
    Riders on camels and a line of white birds in a procession from the paintings of the Hall of the Ambassadors at Afrasiab, the old site of Samarkand, seventh century. The paintings left Uzbekistan for the first time in 2022 for an exhibition at the Louvre. Wall painting: Hall of the Ambassadors, Afrasiab (Samarkand), seventh century. Photograph: Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Samarkand

  • Silver drachm of the Sasanian empire, about 629 CE.
    Silver drachm of the Sasanian empire, about 629 CE. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 36.30.306, Rogers Fund, 1936, Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: Sasanian Persia

  • Folio 707v of the Shahnama made for Shah Tahmasp, showing Khusrau Parviz's charge against Bahram Chubina. Painted in Iran, about 1530–35.
    Folio 707v of the Shahnama made for Shah Tahmasp, showing Khusrau Parviz's charge against Bahram Chubina. Painted in Iran, about 1530–35. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1970.301.72, Gift of Arthur A. Houghton Jr., 1970, Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: Shahnameh

  • A shaman of the Minusinsk Tatars, the Khakas of the upper Yenisei, in ceremonial dress with his face covered, holding a drum. The printed caption says that his face is covered when he shamanises.
    A shaman of the Minusinsk Tatars, the Khakas of the upper Yenisei, in ceremonial dress with his face covered, holding a drum. The printed caption says that his face is covered when he shamanises. Photographer unknown, 1900 to 1915; Wellcome Collection, from the papers of M. A. Czaplicka. Public domain mark.

    Lead image Appears in: Shamanism

  • Fields near Samarkand, photographed by Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii between 1905 and 1915.
    Fields near Samarkand, photographed by Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii between 1905 and 1915. Photograph: Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. No known restrictions on publication.

    Lead image Appears in: Sogdiana

  • A Turkic stone statue in the Ancient States Gallery of the National Museum of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar.
    A Turkic stone statue in the Ancient States Gallery of the National Museum of Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2017, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Stone Figures

  • Farmland of the Chu valley around the town of Tokmak in Kyrgyzstan, photographed from the International Space Station in September 2013. Suyab stood on the Chu; its site, known today as Ak-Beshim, lies near Tokmak.
    Farmland of the Chu valley around the town of Tokmak in Kyrgyzstan, photographed from the International Space Station in September 2013. Suyab stood on the Chu; its site, known today as Ak-Beshim, lies near Tokmak. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Suyab

  • Meanders of the Syr Darya in southern Kazakhstan, astronaut photograph, 2016.
    Meanders of the Syr Darya in southern Kazakhstan, astronaut photograph, 2016. Astronaut photograph ISS048-E-12868. NASA, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Syr Darya

  • Opening pages of the Persian version of al-Tabari's History by Bal'ami, a manuscript of the Il-Khanid period.
    Opening pages of the Persian version of al-Tabari's History by Bal'ami, a manuscript of the Il-Khanid period. Library of Congress, African and Middle East Division, Persian Manuscript Collection, 1-85-154.69, item record, public domain (no known restrictions).

    Lead image Appears in: Tabari

  • The ruins of the citadel of Aulie-Ata, the modern Taraz, from the Turkestan album of 1865–1872.
    The ruins of the citadel of Aulie-Ata, the modern Taraz, from the Turkestan album of 1865–1872. Photograph: Turkestan album; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. No known restrictions on publication.

    Lead image Appears in: Talas

  • Copper cash coins of the Tang with the legend Kaiyuan tongbao.
    Copper cash coins of the Tang with the legend Kaiyuan tongbao. Photograph: Gary Lee Todd, 2007, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Tang

  • A page of the notice on Gaochang in chapter 83 of the Sui Shu, in a Yuan-period printed edition repaired in 1531, in the National Archives of Japan. On the left-hand page the text names the Red Rock Mountain north of Gaochang and, seventy li beyond it, Tanhan Mountain, printed here with the character that later editors corrected.
    A page of the notice on Gaochang in chapter 83 of the Sui Shu, in a Yuan-period printed edition repaired in 1531, in the National Archives of Japan. On the left-hand page the text names the Red Rock Mountain north of Gaochang and, seventy li beyond it, Tanhan Mountain, printed here with the character that later editors corrected. Image: National Archives of Japan. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Tanhan Mountain

  • The Taklamakan desert in the Tarim Basin, between the Tian Shan in the north and the Kunlun in the south, in a MODIS satellite image of 2001.
    The Taklamakan desert in the Tarim Basin, between the Tian Shan in the north and the Kunlun in the south, in a MODIS satellite image of 2001. Image: Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team. NASA Earth Observatory, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Tarim Basin

  • Gold solidus of Justin II, emperor in Constantinople from 565 to 578, in whose fourth year the envoys of Istemi swore the alliance.
    Gold solidus of Justin II, emperor in Constantinople from 565 to 578, in whose fourth year the envoys of Istemi swore the alliance. The Cleveland Museum of Art, 2004.151.a, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: The Göktürk–Byzantine alliance

  • Silver plate with a Sasanian king hunting rams, gilded and inlaid with niello. Iran, middle of the fifth to middle of the sixth century.
    Silver plate with a Sasanian king hunting rams, gilded and inlaid with niello. Iran, middle of the fifth to middle of the sixth century. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 34.33, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: The Göktürk–Sasanian Trade Conflict

  • Runiform lines on the south face of the first Tonyukuk stone in the Nalaikh valley, photographed in June 1909.
    Runiform lines on the south face of the first Tonyukuk stone in the Nalaikh valley, photographed in June 1909. G. J. Ramstedt and Sakari Pälsi, 1909, Finnish Heritage Agency, record, CC BY 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: The Old Turkic script

  • The army of Zhang Yichao on the march, with its banners, its cavalry and dancers between the columns, from the wall painting in Cave 156 at Mogao near Dunhuang. The painting commemorates the rising of 848, in which Zhang Yichao drove the Tibetan garrison out of Dunhuang.
    The army of Zhang Yichao on the march, with its banners, its cavalry and dancers between the columns, from the wall painting in Cave 156 at Mogao near Dunhuang. The painting commemorates the rising of 848, in which Zhang Yichao drove the Tibetan garrison out of Dunhuang. Wall painting: unknown painter, late Tang period; Mogao Cave 156, Dunhuang. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: The Tibetan Empire

  • Painted earthenware tomb figure of an armoured horseman, Northern Wei dynasty, sixth century. The Western Wei, one of the two states into which the Northern Wei split in 534, were the Göktürks’ allies against the Rouran.
    Painted earthenware tomb figure of an armoured horseman, Northern Wei dynasty, sixth century. The Western Wei, one of the two states into which the Northern Wei split in 534, were the Göktürks’ allies against the Rouran. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 20.39.3, Rogers Fund, 1920. Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: The Turkic War of Independence

  • Gold dinar dated 79 AH (698–99 CE), with an Arabic inscription.
    Gold dinar dated 79 AH (698–99 CE), with an Arabic inscription. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 99.35.2386, Bequest of Joseph H. Durkee, 1898, Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: The Umayyad Caliphate

  • A page from the first book of the Record of the Western Regions, the account of the pilgrim Xuanzang, in a Southern Song print of the Buddhist canon. It describes the Thousand Springs, 千泉, four hundred li west of Suyab, where the Göktürk khan came every year to escape the summer heat.
    A page from the first book of the Record of the Western Regions, the account of the pilgrim Xuanzang, in a Southern Song print of the Buddhist canon. It describes the Thousand Springs, 千泉, four hundred li west of Suyab, where the Göktürk khan came every year to escape the summer heat. Image: Sixi canon print, Southern Song; scan National Diet Library, Japan. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Thousand Springs

  • Herds below the snow peaks of the Tian Shan in Kyrgyzstan, 2023.
    Herds below the snow peaks of the Tian Shan in Kyrgyzstan, 2023. Photograph: Bgag, 2023, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Tian Shan

  • A view over Tiflis, the modern Tbilisi, photographed by Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii between 1905 and 1915.
    A view over Tiflis, the modern Tbilisi, photographed by Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii between 1905 and 1915. Photograph: Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division. No known restrictions on publication.

    Lead image Appears in: Tiflis

  • The Tuul river at Ulaanbaatar.
    The Tuul river at Ulaanbaatar. Photograph: Römert, 2015, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Tola

  • The painted and gilded back panels of the stone funerary couch from the tomb of An Jia at Xi'an, buried in 579.
    The painted and gilded back panels of the stone funerary couch from the tomb of An Jia at Xi'an, buried in 579. Photograph: Momo and Gary Todd, 2022, file page, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Tomb of An Jia

  • The Zarafshan range seen from the north across the valley of the Zarafshan near Samarkand, in a colour photograph taken between 1905 and 1915.
    The Zarafshan range seen from the north across the valley of the Zarafshan near Samarkand, in a colour photograph taken between 1905 and 1915. Photograph: Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii, between 1905 and 1915; Library of Congress, no known restrictions.

    Lead image Appears in: Transoxiana

  • Gold bowl from the Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós, seventh to ninth century, in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna.
    Gold bowl from the Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós, seventh to ninth century, in the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Photograph: Wolfgang Sauber, 2015, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Treasure of Nagyszentmiklós

  • One of a pair of gold earrings, Avar work, 550 to 650.
    One of a pair of gold earrings, Avar work, 550 to 650. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 17.191.4, CC0.

    Lead image Appears in: Turkic Tribes in Europe

  • Back panel of the funerary couch of An Jia, a Sogdian sabao at the Zhou court who died in 579. Two men kneel facing each other inside a yurt, a gilded vessel between them; others drink before the tent, and a laden camel and a donkey rest below. The scene is taken to show An Jia at talks with a Göktürk chief.
    Back panel of the funerary couch of An Jia, a Sogdian sabao at the Zhou court who died in 579. Two men kneel facing each other inside a yurt, a gilded vessel between them; others drink before the tent, and a laden camel and a donkey rest below. The scene is taken to show An Jia at talks with a Göktürk chief. Shaanxi History Museum, Xi’an. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2019, CC0 (detail).

    Lead image Appears in: Turkic-Sogdian Synthesis

  • Envoy of the Tuyuhun, labelled 河南, the name under which the southern histories treat their kingdom. From “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, a copy after a painting ascribed to Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–555); an inscription of the Song emperor Lizong names Gu Deqian of the Southern Tang as the copyist.
    Envoy of the Tuyuhun, labelled 河南, the name under which the southern histories treat their kingdom. From “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, a copy after a painting ascribed to Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–555); an inscription of the Song emperor Lizong names Gu Deqian of the Southern Tang as the copyist. Handscroll, ink on paper; National Palace Museum, Taipei, 故畫001389N. Copy of Emperor Yuan of Liang’s “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, The National Palace Museum, Taipei, CC BY 4.0 @ www.npm.gov.tw.

    Lead image Appears in: Tuyuhun

  • Uyghur donor, wall painting from Cave 17 at Bezeklik, about the tenth to eleventh century, photographed in Berlin in 2006.
    Uyghur donor, wall painting from Cave 17 at Bezeklik, about the tenth to eleventh century, photographed in Berlin in 2006. Photograph: Gryffindor, 2006, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Uyghur Kingdom of Qocho

  • Excavated Roman walls and brick pillars at the archaeological site of Viminacium near Kostolac in eastern Serbia, photographed in 2020. In 441 Viminacium was the first great city that the Huns took in their Balkan wars, and they razed it to the ground.
    Excavated Roman walls and brick pillars at the archaeological site of Viminacium near Kostolac in eastern Serbia, photographed in 2020. In 441 Viminacium was the first great city that the Huns took in their Balkan wars, and they razed it to the ground. Image: Ivan Radic, CC BY 2.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Viminacium

  • The lower Volga and its wide floodplain between Volgograd and Astrakhan, photographed from the International Space Station on 13 March 2007. Menander calls the river the Attila; the Roman envoy Zemarchos came to it in 571 on his way home from Istemi.
    The lower Volga and its wide floodplain between Volgograd and Astrakhan, photographed from the International Space Station on 13 March 2007. Menander calls the river the Attila; the Roman envoy Zemarchos came to it in 571 on his way home from Istemi. Image: NASA. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Volga

  • Horsemen in armour on armoured horses ride down robbers on foot in the story of the Five Hundred Robbers, a wall painting in Cave 285 at Mogao near Dunhuang. The cave was painted under the Western Wei and carries dedications of 538 and 539.
    Horsemen in armour on armoured horses ride down robbers on foot in the story of the Five Hundred Robbers, a wall painting in Cave 285 at Mogao near Dunhuang. The cave was painted under the Western Wei and carries dedications of 538 and 539. Wall painting: unknown painter, Western Wei period (535–557); Mogao Cave 285, Dunhuang. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Western Wei

  • Tower on a bastion of the city wall of Liangzhou, today Wuwei, photographed in 1906.
    Tower on a bastion of the city wall of Liangzhou, today Wuwei, photographed in 1906. Carl Gustaf Mannerheim, 1906, Finnish Heritage Agency, record, CC BY 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Wuwei

  • The opening page of book 84 of the Sui Shu, the chapter on the Göktürks, in a Japanese print of 1844. Its first lines give the second account of Göktürk origins, which sets their forebears in a state upon the Western Sea, 西海.
    The opening page of book 84 of the Sui Shu, the chapter on the Göktürks, in a Japanese print of 1844. Its first lines give the second account of Göktürk origins, which sets their forebears in a state upon the Western Sea, 西海. Image: Kōdōkan, Takamatsu (print, 1844); scan National Diet Library, Japan. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Xihai

  • Bronze belt plaque with a tiger devouring a ram, Xiongnu, about second century BC.
    Bronze belt plaque with a tiger devouring a ram, Xiongnu, about second century BC. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 49.132, Rogers Fund, 1949. Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Lead image Appears in: Xiongnu

  • The inscription of Ujuk-Archan on the upper Yenisei, five lines of runiform script with transcription, as Wilhelm Radloff printed it from the squeezes of the Finnish expedition.
    The inscription of Ujuk-Archan on the upper Yenisei, five lines of runiform script with transcription, as Wilhelm Radloff printed it from the squeezes of the Finnish expedition. W. Radloff, Die alttürkischen Inschriften der Mongolei, St Petersburg 1895, p. 305. Public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Yenisei inscriptions

  • A street with a gateway in Hami, the oasis town identified with Yiwu, photographed by C. G. Mannerheim on his journey through Central Asia and China between 1906 and 1908.
    A street with a gateway in Hami, the oasis town identified with Yiwu, photographed by C. G. Mannerheim on his journey through Central Asia and China between 1906 and 1908. Image: C. G. Mannerheim, Finnish Heritage Agency, CC BY 4.0.

    Lead image Appears in: Yiwu

  • Opening of chapter 1 of the Zizhi tongjian in a printed edition of the Song period.
    Opening of chapter 1 of the Zizhi tongjian in a printed edition of the Song period. Sima Guang, Zizhi tongjian, Song-period edition, reproduction, public domain.

    Lead image Appears in: Zizhi tongjian (Comprehensive Mirror in Aid of Governance)

  • The Katun range under a clear sky: a line of snow-covered summits with Belukha at the centre, bare brown ridges in front of them
    The Katun range from the Kara-Tyurek pass, with Belukha at its centre and the Akkem valley below. Photograph: Александр Лещёнок, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    Panorama Appears in: Altai

  • A Persian miniature of a polo match: riders on horses of many colours with polo sticks on a pale field, spectators on a rocky slope and a blue sky above
    Siyavash plays polo before Afrasiab. A page of the Shahnameh made for Shah Tahmasp at Tabriz, about 1525–30, painting attributed to Qasim ibn ʿAli. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1970.301.26, gift of Arthur A. Houghton Jr., 1970; detail. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab

  • A Persian miniature on a red ground: a half-naked captive kneels between attendants, one of whom holds him by the hair, while an armoured man with a helmet stands over him with a drawn sword
    Kay Khosrow puts Afrasiab to death. A page of a Shahnameh, probably from Isfahan, about 1330–40. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1974.290.21, bequest of Monroe C. Gutman, 1974; detail. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab

  • The bare, eroded surface of a wide mound under a clear sky, with the domes and portals of a city and a mountain range beyond
    The Afrasiab mound, the site of Samarkand before the Mongol period, with the domes of the later city behind it. Photograph: David Stanley, 2012, CC BY 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab, Afrasiab paintings

  • Three standing figures in white caftans patterned with woven roundels, their faces and hands partly lost, against a faded blue ground
    Three figures in white silk caftans with woven roundels, in the lower file on the left half of the west wall. There is more than one view of who they are. Photograph: Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • A white caftan covered with columns of cursive writing, and beside it seated figures seen from behind, with long dark plaits hanging down their backs
    The upper file of the west wall, left half: the white caftan bearing the long Sogdian inscription, and beside it seated figures seen from behind with long plaited hair, the Göktürks of the painting. Photograph: Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • The right half of a wall painting in a museum hall: a row of faded standing figures in brown and ochre, and at the right edge a frame of vertical poles
    The right half of the west wall. The foreign envoys stand in a row; at the far right, beside a frame of banner poles, stand the two figures in feathered caps. Photograph: amanderson2, 2018, CC BY 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • Two standing figures, drawn almost only in outline on a faded ground, with long swords at the waist, beside vertical poles
    The two figures in feathered caps at the right end of the west wall. Their paint survives almost only as outline. Photograph: amanderson2, 2018, CC BY 2.0; detail.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • A long boat drawn across a faded wall, carrying a group of standing figures, with swirling water, fish-like creatures and a black bird below it
    The north wall: a boat with Chinese court ladies on the water, and water creatures beneath it. The tallest figure is taken to be an empress or a princess. Photograph: Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • A heavily faded section of wall painting in blue and ochre, in which the outlines of horses and riders can barely be made out
    The north wall, right part: riders at a hunt, taken to be the hunt of the Chinese emperor. Little more than the outlines survives. Photograph: Jean Housen, 2023, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • A long frieze on a bright blue ground: a white elephant at the left, riders on horses and camels, a row of white birds and figures on foot
    The procession on the south wall, from the white elephant at its head to the riders on camels and the white birds. Photograph: Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • The painting as it survives: two riders on a camel, a line of white birds, a standing man in a white robe and the legs of horses from the frieze above, on a faded blue ground with large losses of plaster
    Riders on camels, a line of white birds and a standing man in the procession on the south wall of the Hall of the Ambassadors, seventh century: the painting as it survives, and the same section in an original artistic reconstruction for the atlas, after the photograph. The reconstruction restores the faded colours and fills the losses of plaster. What it paints into the losses, the saddled camel on the right among them, is conjecture. Photograph: Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0. Reconstruction: original artistic rendering for the atlas after this photograph, 2026, CC BY-SA 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • A white elephant with a decorated saddle-cloth on a blue ground; the figures that rode on its back are lost
    The white elephant at the head of the procession on the south wall. The riders on its back are lost. Photograph: Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • A fragment of wall painting: part of a large rider in a red garment patterned with birds, a golden scabbard and a saddle-cloth edged with pearl roundels
    What survives of the outsized rider on the south wall, taken to be Varkhuman: a red silk garment patterned with birds, a golden scabbard and a saddle-cloth bordered with pearl roundels. Photograph: Richard Mortel, 2023, CC BY 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • Belukha, the highest summit of the Altai, seen across the moraine and ice of the Akkem glacier under a summer sky
    Belukha, at 4 506 metres the highest summit of the range, seen from the Akkem glacier on its northern side. The bare moraine in the foreground and the ice tongue behind it are what the upper Altai looks like above the forest. Photograph: Ondřej Žváček, 2007, CC BY 2.5.

    In the text Appears in: Altai

  • The Belukha massif photographed from orbit: snow-covered peaks and glacier tongues radiating from the centre, brown valleys around them
    The Belukha massif and the Katun range from the International Space Station, looking straight down. The glaciers run out from the summit block in several directions; the brown ground around them is the treeless upper slope, and the pale lake near the top of the picture is one of the glacier-fed lakes of the Akkem valley. Photograph: NASA, ISS024-E-15459 (2010), public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Altai

  • A rocky river valley on the Ukok plateau: a milky glacial river on the left, boulders and grass in the foreground, red rock walls and a notch in the ridge behind
    The Ak-Alakha river on the Ukok plateau, in the south of the range, with the channel behind it through which a lake dammed by ice once drained across the ridge into the neighbouring valley. The milky colour of the water is rock flour, ground by the glaciers upstream. Photograph: A. N. Rudoy, 2000, CC BY-SA 3.0.

    In the text Appears in: Altai

  • Satellite image of a high plateau: brown and green ground dotted with dark lakes, snow-covered mountains along the bottom edge
    The Ukok plateau in a Landsat 7 image at thirty metres a pixel, near natural colour. The dark spots are lakes in a permafrost basin; the snow along the lower edge is the Tabyn-Bogdo-Ola massif on the Mongolian border. The frozen barrows of the Pazyryk period on this plateau owe their preservation to the ground shown here. Image: NASA, Landsat 7 (2006), public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Altai

  • A broad grassy valley high in the mountains, a river winding through it in loops, snow-covered peaks along the horizon under a clear sky
    The valley of the Ak-Alakha on the Ukok plateau, one of the places where the frozen barrows of the Pazyryk period lie. The river winds through a basin that is grassland in summer and permafrost underneath. Photograph: Kobsev, 2006, CC BY 2.5.

    In the text Appears in: Altai

  • Line drawing: a shaman with a large frame drum crouches before seated Altaians under a tree; tents stand on the slope behind
    Altaians at the conjuring of spirits by a shaman, in the open beside a tree, with tents behind. Drawing in Radloff’s account of his years in the Altai. W. Radloff, Aus Sibirien, vol. 2, Leipzig 1893, plate 1, Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Animism

  • Line drawing: the hide of a horse stretched on a long slanting pole resting on a frame of posts
    A sacrificial place of the Altaians: the hide of the offered horse hung on a pole above a frame of posts. W. Radloff, Aus Sibirien, vol. 2, Leipzig 1893, plate 1, Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Animism

  • An old woman in a checked dress kneels in the sun and churns with a long wooden dasher in a tall cylindrical churn
    Churning butter with a dasher in a tall churn. The liquid left in the churn when the butter has been lifted out is what Kashgari calls ayran. From an album of views of the Yakutsk region, late nineteenth or early twentieth century. Irkutsk State University. Library of Congress, World Digital Library, free to use.

    In the text Appears in: Ayran

  • Leather bags and carved wooden goblets on a table: a tall skin bag with a carved stopper in the middle, two skins on the right, and seven wooden cups
    Vessels for kumys among the Yakuts, whose word for milk food is ürüŋ , "white": in the middle a skin bag in which the kumys is made, on the right two skins for keeping it, the others wooden drinking cups. Photograph: L. Veniukov; Novosibirsk State Museum of Regional History. Library of Congress, World Digital Library, free to use.

    In the text Appears in: Ayran

  • An openwork gold buckle with two crouching felines attacking ibexes, set as a mirrored pair
    Gold belt buckle with paired felines attacking ibexes, Xiongnu, about third to second century BC, the time of Bagatur. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 17.190.1672, Gift of J. Pierpont Morgan, 1917. Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    In the text Appears in: Bagatur (Modu Chanyu)

  • Aerial photograph of a ruined walled city among green fields, the outlines of an inner and an outer wall drawn in white dashes, the Tian Shan on the horizon, labels in Chinese and English
    The ruins of Beshbalik from the air, as the information board at the site shows them: the inner city within the outer city, the West Temple beyond the West River, and the Tian Shan on the horizon. The arrow at lower right points north. Photograph of the information board at the Beiting ruins.

    In the text Appears in: Beshbalik

  • A weathered stone figure in green grassland under a cloudy sky: a face with heavy brows and a drooping moustache, and a vessel held at the chest
    A carved stone figure on the open steppe: the face with brows and moustache, and a vessel held at the chest. It is a figure of the kind that stood at the enclosure, which is often called a balbal.

    In the text Appears in: Burial and the balbal

  • A grave marked by standing stones on the open steppe, with two camels
    A grave marked by standing stones on the steppe between Schargaldschut and Lake Biir in Mongolia, with two camels, photographed in 1909. The collection does not date the grave itself. Finnish Heritage Agency (Museovirasto), General Ethnographic Photo Collection, VKK156:146. Photograph by Sakari Pälsi, 1909. Finna, CC BY 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Eurasian Nomads

  • A family on the move across the steppe, its goods loaded on yaks
    A Mongol family moving across the steppe in 1909, with their goods carried on yaks. Finnish Heritage Agency (Museovirasto), General Ethnographic Photo Collection, VKK156:38. Photograph by Sakari Pälsi, 1909. Finna, CC BY 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Eurasian Nomads

  • Felt tents standing for sale, one with its lattice frame still uncovered
    Felt tents standing for sale at Urga, today Ulaanbaatar, in 1909. On the right the lattice frame and roof ring of one tent are still uncovered. Finnish Heritage Agency (Museovirasto), General Ethnographic Photo Collection, VKK156:89. Photograph by Sakari Pälsi, 1909. Finna, CC BY 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Eurasian Nomads

  • A gold plaque in the form of a stag with its antlers drawn out into open loops
    Gold plaque of a stag with antlers drawn out into open loops, Scythian, 400–300 BC. The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1985.77, The Severance and Greta Millikin Purchase Fund. Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    In the text Appears in: Eurasian Nomads, History of the Turkic peoples

  • The inside of a round frame drum: a carved wooden handle, an iron crossbar hung with brass bells and cloth strips, and iron crescents along the rim
    A shaman’s drum from the Altai and Khakassia, collected in 1892, seen from behind: brass bells hang from the crossbar. Drum and bell are the two instruments Menander names at the purification of 569. Etnografiska museet, Stockholm, no. 1892.03.0354. Photograph: Daderot, 2014, CC0.

    In the text Appears in: Kam (Turkic Shaman)

  • A bearded man in a long coat, in profile, holding a large frame drum hung with white pelts
    A shaman of the second rank in the Minusinsk district on the upper Yenisei, with his drum, photographed in 1897 on the expedition of Joseph de Baye. Bibliothèque nationale de France, Société de Géographie, SG XCD-199. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Kam (Turkic Shaman)

  • A manuscript page in Uyghur script in two columns, with a line of Arabic calligraphy across the top
    A page of the Vienna manuscript, copied at Herat in 1439 in Uyghur script, with a heading in Arabic letters. Facsimile of the Vienna manuscript, St Petersburg 1890, public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Kutadgu Bilig

  • Domed mud-brick tombs among heaps of rubble under a pale sky, two men standing by a wall
    The mausoleum of Akhmed Zamchi in the ruin fields of ancient Merv, between 1905 and 1915. Photograph: Sergei Prokudin-Gorskii, between 1905 and 1915; Library of Congress, no known restrictions.

    In the text Appears in: Merv

  • A round bronze mirror with lobed rim; two horsemen at full gallop draw their bows among birds, clouds and a mountain
    Bronze mirror with a hunting scene, China, Tang dynasty, eighth century. Two horsemen draw their bows at full gallop. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 25.20.3, Rogers Fund, 1925. Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    In the text Appears in: Mounted Archery

  • A bearded emperor in a flat-topped crown with pendants and a dark robe over red garments, walking between two attendants; a column of Chinese characters in the upper right corner
    Emperor Wu of the Zhou in the Thirteen Emperors Scroll, a handscroll attributed to the Tang court painter Yan Liben and painted in the seventh century. It is a later depiction, not a portrait from life. The inscription calls him Emperor Wu of the Later Zhou, Yuwen Yong, counts five emperors in twenty-five years, and notes that he destroyed the Buddhist law. Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Painting attributed to Yan Liben; reproduction from The Yorck Project. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Northern Zhou

  • A stone slab with a pointed top: in a niche a crowned figure seated with one hand raised, two standing attendants on lotus pedestals, and below them two lions flanking an incense burner
    Laozi seated between two attendants, a Daoist stone image from Shaanxi dated 564, ten years before the ban. The figure sits in the posture of a Buddha; lions and an incense burner fill the base. Field Museum, Chicago. Photograph: Mary Harrsch, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Northern Zhou

  • A round-topped stone shrine: in an arched niche a seated Buddha on a lotus between standing disciples and bodhisattvas, with a muscular guardian figure on each side
    Buddhist stone shrine of the Zhou period from Shaanxi: the Buddha seated on a lotus between disciples and bodhisattvas, with a guardian on either side. Field Museum, Chicago. Photograph: Mary Harrsch, 2016, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Northern Zhou

  • A slender silver ewer on a beaded foot, with a tall handle ending in a small human head and figures in relief around its body
    Replica of the gilded silver ewer from the tomb of Li Xian at Guyuan, shown at the National Museum of China in Beijing. The ewer was made in Central Asia; the figures in relief on its body come from Greek myth. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2011, CC0.

    In the text Appears in: Northern Zhou

  • A wall painting in red, blue, black and white: a small flying figure playing a lute among long streaming scarves
    A flying celestial playing a lute, from the wall paintings of cave 301 at Mogao near Dunhuang, of the Zhou period. Wall painting, Mogao cave 301. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Northern Zhou

  • A painted arch above a doorway: a large monster mask with spread feathers in the middle, a winged figure on each side, and red flowers along the edges
    Modern copy of the painting above the gate of her tomb: a monster mask between two winged figures. Hebei Museum. Copy: Hebei Museum. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2014, CC0.

    In the text Appears in: Princess Linhe, Tomb of Princess Linhe

  • Envoy of the Rouran, labelled 芮芮國, the name the southern courts used for them. From “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, a copy after a painting ascribed to Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–555); an inscription of the Song emperor Lizong names Gu Deqian of the Southern Tang as the copyist.
    Envoy of the Rouran, labelled 芮芮國, the name the southern courts used for them. From “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, a copy after a painting ascribed to Emperor Yuan of Liang (r. 552–555); an inscription of the Song emperor Lizong names Gu Deqian of the Southern Tang as the copyist. Handscroll, ink on paper; National Palace Museum, Taipei, 故畫001389N. Copy of Emperor Yuan of Liang’s “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”, The National Palace Museum, Taipei, CC BY 4.0 @ www.npm.gov.tw.

    In the text Appears in: Rouran Khaganate

  • The rounded top of a dark inscribed stone slab with a carved emblem in its centre and a row of runic signs along the bottom edge
    The crown and upper runes of the Kül Tegin stone, photographed by the Finnish expedition of 1890. Photograph: Finnish expedition of 1890, Inscriptions de l’Orkhon recueillies par l’expédition finnoise 1890, Helsingfors 1892, Tab. 2, public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Second Göktürk Khaganate, History of the Turkic peoples

  • Two men beside a cart and a white horse on open steppe, one of them seated on a large boulder
    General view of the site of the Bilge Khan monument on the Orkhon, photographed in 1890. Photograph: Finnish expedition of 1890, Inscriptions de l’Orkhon recueillies par l’expédition finnoise 1890, Helsingfors 1892, public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Second Göktürk Khaganate

  • Line drawing of the skin of a round drum painted with human figures, animals, birds, trees and a tent, divided by a horizontal band
    The outer side of an Altaian shaman’s drum: men, animals, birds and trees painted on the skin, above and below a dividing band. W. Radloff, Aus Sibirien, vol. 2, Leipzig 1893, plate 1, Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • Line drawing of the inside of a round drum: an upright handle shaped as a figure with a face, a crossbar hung with pendants, and two struts below
    The inside of the same kind of drum: the handle shaped as a figure with a head, and the crossbar hung with pendants. W. Radloff, Aus Sibirien, vol. 2, Leipzig 1893, plate 1, Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • An engraving of the inside of a wooden dwelling: a shaman in a fringed coat holds a drum above his head and dances beside a sick man lying on a bed, while a family sits by a hearth with a hanging cauldron
    A Yakut shaman invoking his spirits to cure a sick man, an engraving titled "A Jakutian Priest invoking his deities to cure a sick man". The Yakut, who call themselves Sakha, speak a Turkic language. The date of the print is not recorded. Engraving by S. Davenport, date not recorded; Wellcome Collection. Public domain mark.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • An engraving of a man in a long coat hung with iron rings and discs, with antler-like prongs at his shoulders and his head bowed, holding an arrow in both hands, with captions in Russian, German and French beneath
    A Tungus shaman on the Argun, seen from the front: a coat hung with iron rings and discs, antler-like prongs at the shoulders, an arrow in the hands. The Tungus speak a Tungusic language. The plate shows the wider Siberian pattern and not the Göktürks. Plate from J. G. Georgi, Description de toutes les nations de l'Empire de Russie, 1776, Boston Public Library copy at the Internet Archive. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • An engraving of the same man seen from behind, with long strips of hide hanging down his back, three iron rings at the collar and antler-like prongs above them, and bells at the hem of the coat
    The same Tungus shaman from behind: long strips down the back, iron rings at the collar under the antler-like prongs, and bells at the hem of the coat. Plate from J. G. Georgi, Description de toutes les nations de l'Empire de Russie, 1776, Boston Public Library copy at the Internet Archive. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • A black-and-white photograph of two men in front of a thatched house: one in a fur-trimmed coat and a pointed hat holds a drum behind him, the other, seated and wearing a feathered headdress, holds a frame drum and a beater
    A Nanai shaman priest and his assistant, each with a frame drum, photographed about 1895. The Nanai, called Goldi in the older literature, are a Tungusic people and not a Turkic one. Photograph by William Henry Jackson, about 1895; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, World's Transportation Commission collection. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • A black-and-white photograph of a shaman in a fringed apron and a dark feathered headdress, holding a large frame drum, on a river bank in winter
    A Nanai shaman in regalia with a frame drum on a river bank, photographed between 1890 and 1900. The shadow of the photographer falls in the foreground. Photograph by William Henry Jackson, 1890 to 1900; Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division, World's Transportation Commission collection. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • A black-and-white photograph of a man seen from behind and from the side, in a coat hung with iron pendants, rings and bells and a fringe, beating a round drum held at his left, on an open plain
    A shaman with a drum in full costume, seen from behind: iron pendants, a large ring with a bell at the back and a long fringe. The printed caption reads "Privileged priest versed in the sorceries of shamanism". The place and date of the photograph are not recorded. Photographer and date not recorded; Wellcome Collection. Public domain mark.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • An engraving of a man with bristling hair, his face set in a scowl, in a coat hung with strips, tassels and pendants, holding a frame drum in one hand and a beater with rings in the other, with captions in Russian, German and French beneath
    A shaman of Kamchatka with a frame drum, a ringed beater and a coat hung with strips and pendants, a plate titled "Ein Schamann in Kamtschatka". The Kamchadal are not a Turkic people. The plate shows the wider Siberian pattern and not the Göktürks. Plate from J. G. Georgi, Description de toutes les nations de l'Empire de Russie, 1776, Boston Public Library copy at the Internet Archive. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Shamanism

  • A manuscript page with six columns of Persian verse in black ink between red rules, framed in gold
    A page of a Shahnama made in Baghdad about 1299, from the reign of Nushirwan (Khosrow I): the war between the Khan of Chin, the khan of the Turks in the Persian epic, and the Haitalians, the Hephthalites. The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1944.480.2.b, CC0.

    In the text Appears in: The Göktürk–Hephthalite war, 555–563

  • A tall brick wall and a huge broken parabolic arch standing alone in a flat desert
    The Taq Kasra at Ctesiphon, the great vaulted hall of the Sasanian palace on the Tigris, photographed in 1932. Photograph: American Colony Photo Department, 1932; Library of Congress, no known restrictions.

    In the text Appears in: The Göktürk–Sasanian Trade Conflict

  • A tall weathered stone pillar covered from top to bottom in vertical lines of runic letters, standing in open grassland
    The upper part of the south face of the first Tonyukuk stone in the Nalaikh valley, photographed in June 1909. Photograph: G. J. Ramstedt and Sakari Pälsi, 1909, Finnish Heritage Agency, CC BY 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Tonyukuk, Tonyukuk inscription

  • Large broken blocks of a stone coffin lying on bare ground on an open plain, with a tent at the left edge
    The stone coffin at the Tonyukuk tomb, seen from the southwest, in 1909. Photograph: Sakari Pälsi, 1909, Finnish Heritage Agency, CC BY 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Tonyukuk, Tonyukuk inscription

  • A wide view over a grass plain with scattered stone blocks, a few upright stones and two tents in front of low hills
    The Tonyukuk tomb, seen from the southwest corner of its earth bank, in 1909. Photograph: Sakari Pälsi, 1909, Finnish Heritage Agency, CC BY 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Tonyukuk inscription

  • A small silver mount with two openings at the top and a rounded double knob below
    Silver belt ornament, Avar or Byzantine work, about 575. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 17.191.179, CC0.

    In the text Appears in: Turkic Tribes in Europe

  • A faded wall painting: a row of standing figures in long coats against a blue ground, with the lower edge of a row of seated figures above them
    West wall of the Hall of the Ambassadors at Afrasiab, Samarkand, middle of the seventh century: a row of standing figures in long coats. Above them runs the lower edge of the seated figures with long plaits whom the museum’s drawing of the wall marks as Turkic guards. Photograph: Jean Housen, 2023, CC BY-SA 4.0.

    In the text Appears in: Turkic-Sogdian Synthesis

  • Two painted pottery warrior figures with crested helmets and fierce faces in a dark museum case, a bilingual museum label in front of them
    Two painted pottery warriors from the tomb of Hou Yi at Hujiagou in Xianyang, a burial of the Western Wei period in the country round Chang'an, now in the Shaanxi History Museum in Xi'an. Photograph: Hugh Llewelyn, 2009, CC BY-SA 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Western Wei

  • A standing painted pottery figure of an official in a small cap, a belted jacket and wide trousers, on a square base in a museum case
    Pottery figure of a military official of the Western Wei period in the National Museum of China, Beijing. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2011, CC0.

    In the text Appears in: Western Wei

  • A stone stele with a rounded top: a seated Buddha in an arched niche between standing attendants, with small carved figures and an inscription panel below
    Buddhist stele of the Western Wei period, a seated Buddha between attendants, in the Beilin Museum in Xi'an, the city that was Chang'an. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2011, CC0.

    In the text Appears in: Western Wei

  • A tall stone stele carved in several registers: a Buddha seated with attendants in the upper niche, a Buddha seated cross-legged in the lower niche, and rows of small figures and scenes around them
    Buddhist stele of the Western Wei period, carved in registers with two seated Buddhas and scenes in relief, in the Xi'an Museum. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2011, CC0.

    In the text Appears in: Western Wei

  • Lines of runiform script with a numbered transcription beside them
    The Ujuk-Archan inscription from the upper Yenisei in runiform script, with transcription, as Wilhelm Radloff printed it in 1895. W. Radloff, Die alttürkischen Inschriften der Mongolei, St Petersburg 1895, p. 305. Public domain.

    In the text Appears in: Yenisei Kirghiz Khaganate

  • Painted and gilded stone reliefs in three panels: riders meeting, two men feasting inside a yurt, a banquet under a pavilion
    Title image of a reading path. Funerary couch of An Jia, a Sogdian sabao at the Zhou court who died in 579, three of its back panels: a meeting of riders and talks at a low table, a feast in a yurt with a laden camel below, a banquet with dancers. Shaanxi History Museum, Xi’an. Photograph: Gary Todd, 2019, CC0.

    Reading path Appears in: Istemi's Journey to the West

  • Rows of runes cut in stone, in an old photograph
    Title image of a reading path. Runes on the east face of the Kül Tegin stone, photographed by the Finnish expedition of 1890. Inscriptions de l’Orkhon, Helsingfors 1892, Tab. 4; National Library of Finland, Public domain.

    Reading path Appears in: Names, titles and claims

  • Armoured horsemen by a city gate, a wall painting from the Kucha region
    Title image of a reading path.

    Reading path Appears in: Partition of the First Göktürk Empire

  • The envoy of the Rouran, a drawing in ink on paper
    Title image of a reading path. Envoy of the Rouran, labelled 芮芮國, from a copy of Emperor Yuan of Liang’s “Foreign Visitors Coming to Court”. National Palace Museum, Taipei, 故畫001389N, CC BY 4.0 @ www.npm.gov.tw.

    Reading path Appears in: Rise and Fall of the Rouran Empire

  • The crown of an inscribed stone, in an old photograph
    Title image of a reading path. Crown and upper runes of the Kül Tegin stone, photographed by the Finnish expedition of 1890. Inscriptions de l’Orkhon, Helsingfors 1892, Tab. 2; National Library of Finland, Public domain.

    Reading path Appears in: The Fall of the Göktürks

  • Runes cut in a standing stone, in an old photograph
    Title image of a reading path. Upper part of the south face of the first Tonyukuk stone, photographed in June 1909 by G. J. Ramstedt and Sakari Pälsi (cropped). Finnish Heritage Agency, VKK532:464, CC BY 4.0.

    Reading path Appears in: The Rebirth of the Göktürks

  • Bronze belt plaque with a tiger devouring a ram
    Title image of a reading path. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 49.132, Rogers Fund, 1949. Open Access, public domain (CC0).

    Reading path Appears in: The Xiongnu

  • A broken stone crown carved with dragons, in an old photograph
    Title image of a reading path. Fragment of the dragon crown of the Karabalghasun stone, photographed by the Finnish expedition of 1890. Inscriptions de l’Orkhon, Helsingfors 1892, Tab. 46; National Library of Finland, Public domain.

    Reading path Appears in: Uyghurs and Kirghiz

Modern depictions

Illustrations, reconstructions and paintings of the present day.

Lead image 64 · In the text 12 · Reading path 6 · Turkic Töre 1 · Page 1

  • An Lushan in a modern portrait.
    An Lushan in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: An Lushan

  • Anagui in a modern portrait.
    Anagui in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Anagui

  • Are Khan in a modern portrait.
    Are Khan in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Are Khan

  • A Göktürk nobleman seated on a felt rug, in a modern drawing.
    A Göktürk nobleman seated on a felt rug, in a modern drawing. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Baga

  • Bagatur in a modern portrait.
    Bagatur in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Bagatur (Modu Chanyu)

  • Battle of Dzungaria, 552 in a modern illustration.
    Battle of Dzungaria, 552 in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Battle of Dzungaria, 552

  • Battle of Huaihuang, 552 in a modern illustration.
    Battle of Huaihuang, 552 in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Battle of Huaihuang, 552

  • Bayanchur Khan in a modern portrait.
    Bayanchur Khan in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Bayanchur Khan

  • Bilge Khan in a modern drawing.
    Bilge Khan in a modern drawing. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Bilge Khan

  • Bumin Khan in a modern portrait.
    Bumin Khan in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Bumin Khan

  • A holder of the title at a feast with a drinking horn, in a modern illustration.
    A holder of the title at a feast with a drinking horn, in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Daluobian

  • Donghu in a modern illustration.
    Donghu in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Donghu

  • Empress Yujiulü in a modern portrait.
    Empress Yujiulü in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Empress Yujiulü

  • An elder officer of the khaganate in a modern illustration: the age that the title names.
    An elder officer of the khaganate in a modern illustration: the age that the title names. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Geli Daguan

  • Göktürk Expansion along the Silk Road in a modern illustration.
    Göktürk Expansion along the Silk Road in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Göktürk Expansion along the Silk Road

  • Göktürk Expansion into Europe in a modern illustration.
    Göktürk Expansion into Europe in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Göktürk Expansion into Europe

  • Göktürk raid of 542 in a modern illustration.
    Göktürk raid of 542 in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Göktürk raid of 542

  • Göktürk war of restoration, 679–687 in a modern illustration.
    Göktürk war of restoration, 679–687 in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Göktürk war of restoration, 679–687

  • Göktürks in a modern illustration.
    Göktürks in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Göktürks

  • A commander with his horse before his riders, in a modern illustration: the horse and the command that the title names.
    A commander with his horse before his riders, in a modern illustration: the horse and the command that the title names. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Helan Suni Que

  • Heqin in a modern illustration.
    Heqin in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Heqin

  • Runes of the Tonyukuk stone, the Göktürk realm in 552, the Altai from space, a Scythian gold stag, the empire of Attila in 453 and riders on a Tang bronze mirror.
    Runes of the Tonyukuk stone, the Göktürk realm in 552, the Altai from space, a Scythian gold stag, the empire of Attila in 453 and riders on a Tang bronze mirror. Photographs: G. J. Ramstedt and Sakari Pälsi, Finnish Heritage Agency (CC BY 4.0); NASA, astronaut photograph iss069e071176 (public domain); The Cleveland Museum of Art, 1985.77 (CC0); The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 25.20.3 (CC0). Maps: © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: History of the Turkic peoples

  • Huhanye Chanyu in a modern portrait.
    Huhanye Chanyu in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Huhanye Chanyu

  • Huns in a modern illustration.
    Huns in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Huns

  • A Göktürk archer in a modern illustration: the strength and courage that the title names.
    A Göktürk archer in a modern illustration: the strength and courage that the title names. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Ishbara (Title)

  • Issik Khan in a modern drawing.
    Issik Khan in a modern drawing. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Issik Khan

  • Istemi in a modern portrait.
    Istemi in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Istemi

  • An aged dignitary in a modern illustration: the high office that men of great age held.
    An aged dignitary in a modern illustration: the high office that men of great age held. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Keluo Chuo

  • Khan (Khagan) in a modern illustration.
    Khan (Khagan) in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Khan (Khagan)

  • A Göktürk chur on horseback before a camp, with a golden wolf-head standard behind him, in a modern drawing.
    A Göktürk chur on horseback before a camp, with a golden wolf-head standard behind him, in a modern drawing. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Külüg Chur

  • Kut in a modern illustration.
    Kut in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Kut

  • Kutlug Bilge Kül Khan in a modern portrait.
    Kutlug Bilge Kül Khan in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Kutlug Bilge Kül Khan

  • Laoshang Chanyu in a modern portrait.
    Laoshang Chanyu in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Laoshang Chanyu

  • Loose-rein prefectures in a modern illustration.
    Loose-rein prefectures in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Loose-rein prefectures

  • Mobei campaign, 119 BC in a modern illustration.
    Mobei campaign, 119 BC in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Mobei campaign, 119 BC

  • On Oq in a modern illustration.
    On Oq in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: On Oq

  • Ötüken in a modern illustration: an inscribed stele in the forested upland, with swords set upright in the ground around it.
    Ötüken in a modern illustration: an inscribed stele in the forested upland, with swords set upright in the ground around it. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Ötüken

  • A peri at a spring in a modern illustration: the shape the being takes in later Turkic storytelling, not in any source of the khaganates.
    A peri at a spring in a modern illustration: the shape the being takes in later Turkic storytelling, not in any source of the khaganates. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Peri

  • Rise of Anagui Khan in a modern illustration.
    Rise of Anagui Khan in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Rise of Anagui Khan

  • Rouran in a modern illustration.
    Rouran in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Rouran

  • Siege of Baideng in a modern illustration.
    Siege of Baideng in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Siege of Baideng

  • Two Göktürk dignitaries in conversation at the entrance of a felt tent at dusk, in a modern drawing.
    Two Göktürk dignitaries in conversation at the entrance of a felt tent at dusk, in a modern drawing. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Sifa

  • An officer with a comb at a walled market town, in a modern illustration: the hair of the title's name and the office likened to a prefect's.
    An officer with a comb at a walled market town, in a modern illustration: the hair of the title's name and the office likened to a prefect's. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Suoge Tudun

  • A young Göktürk prince, a tegin, in a modern drawing.
    A young Göktürk prince, a tegin, in a modern drawing. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Tegin

  • The Court Debate of 630 in a modern illustration.
    The Court Debate of 630 in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: The Court Debate of 630

  • The fall of Ordu-Balık, 840 in a modern illustration.
    The fall of Ordu-Balık, 840 in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: The fall of Ordu-Balık, 840

  • The Göktürk interregnum, 630–682 in a modern illustration.
    The Göktürk interregnum, 630–682 in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: The Göktürk interregnum, 630–682

  • The Huns and the Xiongnu in a modern illustration.
    The Huns and the Xiongnu in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: The Huns and the Xiongnu

  • The tiered cosmos in a modern illustration: Uçmag above, the earth in the middle, Tamag below, the world tree through all three.
    The tiered cosmos in a modern illustration: Uçmag above, the earth in the middle, Tamag below, the world tree through all three. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: The three worlds

  • The Turkic ethnogenesis debate in a modern illustration.
    The Turkic ethnogenesis debate in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: The Turkic ethnogenesis debate

  • The officers of the khaganate before the khan's tent in a modern illustration, beneath the standard with the golden wolf's head.
    The officers of the khaganate before the khan's tent in a modern illustration, beneath the standard with the golden wolf's head. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: The Twenty-Eight Ranks

  • Tiele in a modern illustration.
    Tiele in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Tiele

  • Töre in a modern illustration.
    Töre in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Töre

  • Toy in a modern illustration.
    Toy in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Toy

  • Ulukayın in a modern illustration: the birch at the centre of the world, its crown among the stars.
    Ulukayın in a modern illustration: the birch at the centre of the world, its crown among the stars. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Ulukayın (Turkic World Tree)

  • Uyghur Khaganate in a modern illustration.
    Uyghur Khaganate in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Uyghur Khaganate

  • Western Göktürk Khaganate in a modern illustration.
    Western Göktürk Khaganate in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Western Göktürk Khaganate

  • Xianbei in a modern illustration.
    Xianbei in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Xianbei

  • Xiongnu split of 48 in a modern illustration.
    Xiongnu split of 48 in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Xiongnu split of 48

  • Yabgu in a modern illustration.
    Yabgu in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Yabgu

  • Elders of the western Göktürks in council inside a felt tent, the khan listening at the back, in a modern drawing.
    Elders of the western Göktürks in council inside a felt tent, the khan listening at the back, in a modern drawing. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Yanhongda

  • Yenisei Kirghiz in a modern illustration.
    Yenisei Kirghiz in a modern illustration. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Yenisei Kirghiz

  • A Göktürk rider at the gallop in a modern illustration: the bravery and strength that the word names.
    A Göktürk rider at the gallop in a modern illustration: the bravery and strength that the word names. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Yinghefu

  • Zhizhi Chanyu in a modern portrait.
    Zhizhi Chanyu in a modern portrait. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    Lead image Appears in: Zhizhi Chanyu

  • The same section reconstructed: the blue ground and the ochre camels in fresh colour, the riders, the birds and the standing man complete, and a camel with a saddle cloth where the photograph shows only losses
    Riders on camels, a line of white birds and a standing man in the procession on the south wall of the Hall of the Ambassadors, seventh century: the painting as it survives, and the same section in an original artistic reconstruction for the atlas, after the photograph. The reconstruction restores the faded colours and fills the losses of plaster. What it paints into the losses, the saddled camel on the right among them, is conjecture. Photograph: Carole Raddato, CC BY-SA 2.0. Reconstruction: original artistic rendering for the atlas after this photograph, 2026, CC BY-SA 2.0.

    In the text Appears in: Afrasiab paintings

  • A woman on a grey horse against a blue sky and forested hills, in a tall black headdress with a gilt ornament, a white blouse and a red skirt
    A rider in a modern reconstruction of the dress of the Pazyryk barrows: the tall headdress, the light blouse and the red skirt. A staged photograph of the present day, not a find.

    In the text Appears in: Altai

  • A memorial enclosure on the steppe at sunrise: a setting of stone slabs, a carved figure holding a cup, and a long line of rough stones running toward the rising sun
    A memorial enclosure in an original artistic rendering for the atlas: the setting of stone slabs, the carved figure with the cup at the chest, and the line of balbals running east toward the sunrise. It shows no particular site. © Emre-E Yavuz 2026

    In the text Appears in: Burial and the balbal

  • Three stone figures with moustaches holding cups at the chest, painted in ochre against a deep blue sky filled with chariots, deer, an archer and runic signs; a line of small stones on the horizon
    Three carved figures with cups at the chest and daggers at the belt, in a modern painting. Behind them the painter has set chariots, deer and an archer in the manner of steppe rock art, and signs in the manner of Old Turkic runes; a line of stones runs along the horizon.

    In the text Appears in: Burial and the balbal

  • A figure in red on black: antlers and two rayed stalks rising from a spiral head, a patterned robe, a round drum marked with a deer and trees in one hand and a beater in the other
    A kam with drum and beater, in a modern graphic in red on black: an antlered headdress, a spiral in place of the face, and a drum marked with a deer and trees.

    In the text Appears in: Kam (Turkic Shaman)

  • Bare-chested men with long plaits carving runic inscriptions into stone slabs on a mountain meadow, beside a carved stone figure and a carved base
    The cutting of runic stones on the steppe, in a modern illustration. The inscription names its makers otherwise: the carvers were sent by the Chinese emperor, and Yollug Tegin wrote the text. Illustration as published by e-history.kz.

    In the text Appears in: Kül Tegin inscription

  • A dark figure with seven rays ending in round knobs rising from its head, arms spread, above a row of small figures, beside a quartered circle, a tree and runic signs
    A figure with a rayed head over a row of smaller figures, beside a quartered circle, a tree and signs in the manner of Old Turkic runes: an image in the style of steppe rock art.

    In the text Appears in: Tengri

  • A black-and-white drawing: a jaw harp over a spoked wheel at the centre, surrounded by rock-art figures of deer, riders and dancers, a figure with a sun for a head, and bands of runic signs below
    A modern drawing that gathers motifs of present-day Tengrism: a jaw harp over a spoked wheel, figures in the manner of steppe rock art, a figure with a sun for a head, and bands of signs in the manner of Old Turkic runes. It belongs to the modern revival, not to the sixth century.

    In the text Appears in: Tengrism

  • Gold figures on black: a standing figure whose head is a ring of dots and circles, surrounded by an archer, deer, an elk, a spoked wheel and other signs
    A figure with a rayed head among an archer, deer, an elk and a spoked wheel: a modern rendering in gold on black after the rock art of Kazakhstan.

    In the text Appears in: The steppe before the Xiongnu

  • A warrior in a fur cap with a round shield, beneath a tall standard with a crescent finial, a crossbar and long streamers, drawn in black and white
    A steppe warrior beneath a standard with a metal finial and long streamers, in a modern drawing. Drawing: signed jonele_art.

    In the text Appears in: Tuğ

  • Armoured riders at the gallop on a dusty plain; the leader in a pointed helmet and red coat, behind him a pole topped with a wolf’s head and a long patterned banner
    Göktürk riders under a standard with a wolf’s head, in a modern painting. The Zhou Shu reports that a golden wolf’s head was set on the Göktürk standards; the armour, the banner and the scene are the painter’s.

    In the text Appears in: Tuğ

  • A crowded scene of musicians in white shirts and embroidered caps playing long-necked lutes, fiddles, a dulcimer, frame drums and flutes, with singers among them
    Muqam , a painting of 1984 by the Uyghur painter Ghazi Ehmet: singers and musicians of the Uyghur muqam with long-necked lutes, fiddles, a dulcimer, frame drums and flutes. It shows the Uyghurs of the twentieth century, eleven centuries after the dispersal of 840. Painting: Ghazi Ehmet, 1984.

    In the text Appears in: Uyghurs

  • The Age of the Xiongnu and the Huns
    Title image of a reading path.

    Reading path Appears in: The Age of the Xiongnu and the Huns

  • The Ashina Dynasty
    Title image of a reading path.

    Reading path Appears in: The Ashina Dynasty

  • The Rise of the Göktürks
    Title image of a reading path.

    Reading path Appears in: The Rise of the Göktürks

  • Göktürk riders under a standard, in a modern painting
    Title image of a reading path.

    Reading path Appears in: The Turkic War of Independence

  • The World of the Steppe
    Title image of a reading path.

    Reading path Appears in: The World of the Steppe

  • Turkic Cosmology
    Title image of a reading path.

    Reading path Appears in: Turkic Cosmology

  • Law and assembly
    Title image of a group on the page Turkic Töre.

    Turkic Töre Appears in: Law and assembly

  • Image of the page for articles still to come.

    Page Appears in: This article is still to come

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